The standard of living reflects the provision of the population with the material and spiritual benefits necessary for its life, the level of their consumption and the degree to which people's needs for these benefits are satisfied.
It is expressed by the value of its various components: the state of health, the nature of nutrition, living conditions, the availability of education, working and rest conditions, etc.
Living standards indicators can be represented through the following blocks:
1. income and expenses of the population;
2. social security (pensions, allowances, benefits);
3. social demography (proportion of young people, pensioners, mortals);
4. consumption of material goods and paid services by the population (provision of durable goods);
5. housing and communal living conditions (the state of the housing stock, its improvement);
6. development of trade, public catering and consumer services;
7. transport and communications;
8. the state of health of the population (physical and mental capabilities of people, their well-being, duration and severity of illnesses);
9. working, non-working, free time;
10. organization and working conditions (tension and efficiency, the level of industrial injuries, freedom in choosing a profession and specialty);
11. security status environment;
12. the state of education and culture (the level of education, the degree of mastery of scientific knowledge, the availability of libraries);
13. human rights.
The scheme of formation of incomes of the population can be represented as follows:
1. cash income;
2. income in kind;
3. material costs of institutions that educate the population for free;
4. nominal incomes of the population;
5. payment for services;
6. obligatory payments and taxes;
7. disposable income of the population;
8. voluntary payments and contributions;
9. increase in savings;
10. reduction of debts of the population for goods, property purchased on credit;
11. final income;
13. final income in comparable prices and tariffs.
When analyzing all these indicators in different countries, it should be taken into account that their number is very large and the level of social economic development may differ significantly. In highly developed countries, unemployment, income levels, and the availability and quantity of social transfers will come first. For countries with economies in transition, indicators of GDP, income and expenditure structure, inflation, and unemployment will be of greater importance. AT developing countries ah, the most important parameters will be per capita consumption, demographic indicators, and sanitary and hygienic conditions.
It is rational to consider in more detail those indicators that will be used in the future to analyze the standard of living in the Republic of Belarus.
The first of these indicators is the gross domestic product (GDP). Since the standard of living directly depends on the economic state of the country, for its analysis they use such an indicator as the value of GDP per capita. This indicator has a nominal and real expression, since it represents the ratio of the entire gross domestic product produced in a year to the entire actual population of the country. But as a relative value, GDP has its own characteristics:
1. GDP can change not due to an increase or decrease in the volume of production and services, but due to demographic changes. A country may experience an explosion in the birth rate, immigration flows will increase, but with real GDP unchanged, its per capita rate may drop sharply.
2. GDP is an average indicator that does not reflect exactly how these benefits are distributed among the population. It may be possible that a large part of GDP will be consumed by a small part of the rich people, the vast majority of the population will live in poverty, and at the same time, GDP per capita will occupy high positions in the world rankings.
The most important indicators of the standard of living of the population are income and expenditure. They are also the most complex indicators. Depending on belonging to a certain stratum of society, people can receive different kinds income:
Wages;
property income and entrepreneurial activity;
Social transfers;
Income from farms and services.
Household spending includes consumer spending (food, clothing and footwear, healthcare, housing and communal services, transport and communications, education, culture and recreation), mandatory payments, savings and loans. And when assessing the standard of living, not only the levels of real incomes and their stable increase are important, but also their sources and their quantity, as well as the structure of all income by sources.
The main demographic indicators are migration, life expectancy and natural increase. Based on their changes, one can judge the stability of economic development and the level of real incomes, the level of development and the ecological state in the country.
Also important indicators are: the level of education and living conditions. General literacy and education of the population testify to the development and accessibility of education, the level of culture and its consumption. The provision of housing for the population shows the average number of square meters of residential premises per inhabitant. The quality of housing reflects the improvement of the housing stock, that is, the provision of residential premises with certain types of improvement (water supply, sewerage, heating, electricity).
For international comparisons, the Human Development Index is used. To track the sustainable development of the population in 2002 at the UN Conference on Financing for Development in the city of Monterrey, it was decided to use special synthetic indicators called the human development index.
The most relevant for Belarus is the Human Development Index (HDI).
The HDI measures a country's average level of achievement in three critical human development pillars:
1. long and healthy life, measured by the indicator of average life expectancy;
2. knowledge as measured by the adult literacy rate (two-thirds weight) and the combined total enrollment in primary, secondary and tertiary education (one-third weight);
3. a decent standard of living as measured by GDP per capita (PPP in US dollars).
Regardless of the level of economic development, countries are divided into the following groups according to the HDI level:
1. HDI over 0.8 – countries with a high level of human development;
2. HDI from 0.5 to 0.8 - countries with an average level of human development;
3. HDI less than 0.5 - countries with low level human development.
The Human Development Index is a simplified measure of the standard of living. Its main task is to rank countries and compare them in a rating to judge the orientation of the country's economy towards the goals of human development.
Summing up all of the above, it should be noted that along with economic growth and development, social progress should not lag behind it, and in addition to improving the person himself, it should be accompanied by an improvement in the quality of the system of social relations. Such conditions must be created in society so that each person can satisfy his vital needs, independently solve his problems.
Introduction
Standard of living(well-being) of the population is a complex socio-economic concept. Knowledge about the standard of living of everything gives an analysis of the conditions (needs), the satisfaction of which is necessary for life. The most important among them (first group of needs)- food, consumption of clothes, shoes and other items that make up the physical elements of the standard of living. second group needs form the spiritual conditions of life and, finally, - third– social needs met in the process social activities. All three groups of needs are not only natural, but also historically established conditions of life.
In this paper, the main indicators of the standard of living in Russia and ways to solve some of these indicators are considered in more detail. The purpose of this work is to study the factors that determine the dynamics of the standard of living of the population, to analyze the degree of their influence and role in improving the standard of living. To achieve this goal, you need:
1. get acquainted with the concept and indicators of the standard of living;
2. analysis of factors influencing the dynamics of the standard of living;
3. identification of problems and ways to solve them in Russia.
Sometimes they make a brief conclusion to the standard of living. Standard of living- "mirror" of the economy. Economists, of course, are primarily interested in that facet of needs, the formation and satisfaction of which depends on production. Therefore, the most common concept of the standard of living is − the amount of consumed material, cultural, household and social benefits and the degree of satisfaction of needs for them at the achieved stage of development of production forces.
All three groups of needs in their main features are determined by socio-economic conditions. At the same time, they depend on both natural and physiological factors, therefore, along with the level of development of production, when studying needs, it is impossible not to take into account the characteristics of the external environment, primarily natural and climatic conditions , as well as features of the population structure (age, gender, nature of work). Finally, a certain role in the formation of needs is played by social affiliation and place of residence(village, city), as well as related cultural features. The needs that develop in this way become the basis for the formation of non-productive consumption, defined as the process of satisfying needs.
Over time, the role of individual factors in the formation of needs change. As the productive forces develop, the ways to meet the needs of the population become diverse, and the role of the environment grows. At the same time, physiological factors in the formation of needs also retain their influence, since their fundamental principle remains. And although the importance of these factors decreases relatively over time, their influence will never disappear, since the primary needs will never disappear.
Needs are the most important aspect of the standard of living. They are satisfied in the process of consumption, i.e., the use by a person of certain goods. If we take directly the personal needs of people, then this definition will characterize personal consumption, it should be distinguished from it production consumption , i.e., the use of means of production and objects of labor to create material wealth. Although people do not consume anything in the process of productive consumption, it is ultimately carried out for the sake of satisfying personal needs, so the above definition is also true for productive consumption. The standard of living can be viewed in three aspects: in relation to the entire population, its social groups and in relation to families with different amounts of income. The last two categories are especially important for characterizing the degree of stratification of the population according to property status. They are being actively studied, since the convergence of the well-being of various groups of the population and the reduction of family income differentiation are priority goals of the social policy of developed countries.
Term "standard of living" inextricably linked with the term "the quality of life" , which is an indicator of the general well-being of a person, which is broader than material security. The quality of life may depend on the state of health, freedom from stress and excessive anxiety, organization of leisure, level of education, access to cultural heritage. Based on what is "the quality of life" , we can conclude that all the same, this phrase should be put in first place, and then, according to its criteria, draw a conclusion about the “standard of living”.
1.Key indicators of the standard of living
1.1 Incomes and expenditures of the population
Incomes of the population (total, personal, monetary, general, real, disposable).
BUT . Population income - the amount of money and material goods received or produced by the household for a certain period of time. Cash income of the population includes wages, income from entrepreneurial activities, pensions, scholarships, various allowances, income from property in the form of interest, dividends, rent, funds from the sale of securities, real estate, agricultural products, various products, as well as income from various services provided on the side.
The level of income of the population is the most important indicator of the well-being of society, the determining factor in relation to social opportunities population: recreation, education, health maintenance.
The level of consumption of the population directly depends on the level of income, so one of the main tasks of stimulating the economy is to increase the income of the population. First of all, the income of the poorest and middle part of the population. As well as timely payment of salaries, pensions, scholarships and other social benefits.
The amount of income of the population is significantly affected by the size wages, the dynamics of retail prices, the degree of saturation of the consumer market with goods.
The indicators of nominal, disposable and real income are used to assess the level and dynamics of the population's income.
Nominal income - the amount of money received by individuals during a certain period.
disposable income - income that can be used for personal consumption and personal savings. Disposable income is less than nominal income by the amount of taxes and obligatory payments.
To measure the dynamics of disposable income, the indicator of real disposable income is used, calculated taking into account the consumer price index. Real disposable income is the amount of goods and services that can be bought with disposable income during a certain period, i.e. it is CPI (consumer price index) adjusted disposable income.
Yes, in Russian Federation, the following data was recorded. Real disposable cash income (income net of mandatory payments, adjusted for the consumer price index) in January 2009 compared with the corresponding period of 2008, according to estimates, decreased by 6.7.
Table 1.1
The main indicators characterizing the standard of living of the population
| January 2009 | For reference January 2008 in % | |||||
| January 2008 | December 2008 | |||||
| January 2007 | December 2007 | |||||
| Money income (average per capita), rub. | ||||||
| Real disposable cash income | | |||||
| Average monthly accrued salary. payment for one job: | | | | | | |
| nominal, rub | ||||||
| real | | |||||
| For January 2009 preliminary data. | ||||||
Table 1.2
Dynamics of real disposable money income
| Resp. period of the previous year | previous period |
|
| I quarter | ||
| II quarter | ||
| I half year | |
|
| September | ||
| III quarter | ||
| January-September | |
|
| IV quarter | ||
| |
||
| 1) Preliminary data. |
||
Wage. The average monthly accrued wages in January 2009, according to preliminary data, amounted to 15,200 rubles and, compared with January 2008, increased by 3.0%.
Table 1.3
Dynamics of the average monthly nominal and real accrued wages
| Average monthly nominal accrued salary, rubles | Real accrued salary payment in % to | |||||
| Corresponding period of the previous year | Previous | |||||
| corresponding to the period previous year | Previous period | |||||
| I quarter | ||||||
| II quarter | ||||||
| I half year | | | ||||
| September | ||||||
| III quarter | ||||||
| January-September | | | ||||
| December 1) | ||||||
| IV quarter 1) | ||||||
| | | |||||
| 1) Preliminary data. | ||||||
B. Sources of information about the income of the population.
The main sources of data on incomes and expenditures of the population are state and departmental statistics.
Government statistics collects information directly from the population and households, through a sample survey of households and from large and medium-sized firms reporting on labor and wages. In addition, periodic surveys of wage arrears are carried out for some sectors of the economy, as well as a study of wage differentiation in a sample of firms.
Departmental statistics summarize information on payments made to the population, on payments received from it, based on departmental reporting. Such data include:
Balance of cash income and expenditures of the population, which summarizes information from financial institutions and is built by the Central Bank of the Russian Federation;
Data on the amount of paid pensions and benefits provided by the State Pension Fund;
The amounts of income declared by the population and taxes paid from them, according to the State tax service RF.
The main tasks of statistics in the study of income and expenditure of the population and households include:
Characteristics of the size and composition of incomes and expenditures of the population and households;
Analysis of differentiation of money income and consumption;
Studying the dynamics of cash income;
Modeling of income, expenses and consumption of the population;
Study of the impact of income (expenses) on consumption and other socio-economic indicators.
However, information on income is the least reliable due to the variety of sources of income, the presence of unrecorded income from “shadow” economic activities, the time gap between the activities carried out and its payment, and the presence of not only cash income, but also in-kind food receipts. and provided benefits to the population. Therefore, statistics is increasingly focusing on the study of expenditures, that is, it studies income through the expenditures of the population.
Balance of cash income and expenditures of the population
| Income | Spending and Savings |
| 1 . Salary 2 . Income of workers and employees from enterprises and organizations, except for wages: social payments; other payments not related to the payroll and social payments (travel expenses, royalties, field allowances, the cost of free uniforms, etc.) 3 . Dividends 4 . Proceeds from the sale of agricultural products 5 . Pensions and benefits 6 . Scholarships 7 . Proceeds from financial system: insurance indemnities; loans; interest on deposits; winnings and repayments on loans; winnings from lotteries; changing the population's debt for buying goods on credit; reimbursement of expenses for disabled people (for fuel, car repairs); compensation for damage to repressed citizens. 8 . Income from the sale of foreign currency 9 . Other supply from the sale of things through commission shops and buying points; from the sale of salvage, scrap metal; other income. 10 . Money received from transfers | 1. Purchase of goods and payment for services: purchase of goods in all distribution channels; payment for services and other expenses: payment for housing and utilities; payment for household services; services of the education system; expenses for vouchers to sanatoriums and rest houses, tourism and medical services; expenses for cinema, theaters and other spectacles; expenses for all types of transport; payment communication services; other expenses. 2. Mandatory payments and voluntary contributions: taxes and fees; insurance payments; contributions to public and cooperative organizations; repayment of loans; purchase of lottery tickets; interest on trade credit. 3 . Increase in savings in deposits and securities 4. Purchase of residential premises 5 . Expenses for the purchase of foreign currency 6 . Money sent by transfer |
| Total Cash Income | Total cash spending and savings |
| Excess of expenses over income | Excess of income over expenses |
Excess of the amount of income of the population over expenses means an increase in assets in the form of cash; excess of expenses over income – financing of expenses at the expense of accumulated assets.
To study the relationship between the dynamics of income (prices) and the consumption of individual goods, we calculate elasticity coefficients . Show how much the level of consumption changes when income (price) changes by 1%:
y 0- the level of consumption in the base period;
x0- per capita income (price of goods) in the base period;
∆x and ∆y- change in per capita income (price of goods) and consumption level over the past period.
1.2 Monetary savings of the population
In a market economy, the expenses of the family budget are usually less than its income. Savings refers to that part of income that does not go to the purchase of goods and services. Savings include paying taxes. Of course, not all categories of the population are able to save. Some families simply do not want to do them, and these incomes go to buy something. Such families, for example, include some young families. At first, they are usually limited in funds. Housing or any expensive durables they are not purchased for own funds but through loans or credits from the bank. In contrast to younger families, there are some older people who spend more than their income (pension). They can do this with the savings that have been accumulated throughout their lives. And pensioners spend more because living on a pension is difficult to maintain the achieved standard of living.
Thus, when viewed from a macroeconomic point of view, families that do not save are overridden by the savings of families that do. In our country, the problem of savings has not been given enough attention. We are now beginning to understand the importance of the macroeconomic aspects of the savings problem. The transition to a market economy forces us to reconsider the role played by monetary savings in the country's economy. Free cash can not only be saved. Saving is opposed to investment. If we approach the issue of savings strictly, we see that saving- this is the difference between income and consumption, although it is customary to consider the difference between income and expenses as savings. save means to abstain from consumption. And depending on the extent to which people save, society directs its resources to capital investments. In this case, it is necessary to ensure the productive use of savings in order to achieve an increment in the value of funds.
To control and manage money, it is necessary to know the motives that encourage people to save, as well as the factors that influence the savings process. According to social surveys of the population, we can distinguish the following motives:
Meeting future needs (buying expensive things, saving money for a vacation);
Accumulation of a certain amount for unforeseen cases;
Desire to provide for children (or help from parents to young families);
Save up money so that after retirement you can maintain the achieved standard of living.
People can also save without being motivated by any circumstances.
This classification gives an idea of the motivation for savings. One might get the impression that they are largely dependent on a particular family or individual, but the motives also depend on the general development of society. In conditions of deficit, the balance of unrealized funds can reach enormous proportions, the possibility of creating savings determines the level and nature of the movement of cash incomes of the population. Proportions between incomes and expenditures of the population are one of the criteria for evaluating the dynamics of the savings process. The gap between the demand of the population and its material coverage speaks of a deviation of the savings process from the norm - this leads to excess cash savings. Such savings are of specific importance, they put pressure on the market and contribute to rising prices, and interest in the efficiency of social production is reduced. The savings process has a multifactorial character. Savings are affected by: factors:
Correspondence of the level of production with the level of needs;
Forms of remuneration;
Types of cash income of the population;
General price level;
Development of investment forms;
economic stability.
Thus, in October 2008, only in Moscow, according to Rosstat 1), household expenditures exceeded incomes - by 15%. In general, in Russia in October, expenses were 24.6% less than income, but already in November, the expenses of all Russians became 7.1% more than income. For the entire year, household spending exceeded income by 4.1 billion rubles. (25,526.4 billion against 25,522.3 billion rubles). Separately, in the IV crisis quarter - by 166 billion rubles. In 2007, revenues were higher by 819 billion rubles. I had to spend my savings from previous years. The income received by the population this year was not enough to ensure the usual level of consumption - they had to spend part of their savings and cash for the year, the increase in cash amounted to zero (+3.8% in 2007). This has never happened, even in the 1990s: in 1997, incomes were 1.3% higher than expenditures, in 1998 - by 1.7%, although, as in 2008, the population then actively went into foreign currency. Last year, according to the Ministry of Economic Development 2), the population spent 2 trillion rubles on the purchase of foreign currency. - twice as much as in 2007. The share of savings in ruble deposits and securities fell 34 times - to 0.2%. decreased by 832.9 billion rubles, or 9.7%, including deposits - by 754.4 billion rubles. (by 14.7%). According to the Central Bank, in autumn (no data for December), ruble deposits decreased by 636 billion rubles, while foreign currency deposits increased by 268 billion rubles: 58% of the withdrawn rubles were not returned to banks by the population. In December, each Russian spent twice as many rubles on the purchase of foreign currency than he placed on deposit, while in December 2007 the ratio was 3:1 in favor of deposits.
Overspending leads to a decrease in consumption, people's motivation changes. In November-December, real incomes and wages fell, wage arrears grew by 75% over the year (to 4.7 billion rubles at the end of December).
1.3 Accumulated property and housing
Sources of information:
- about the amount of household property – sample budget surveys, trade statistics;
- about the living conditions of the population - statistics of housing and communal services, population censuses, sample surveys.
Data on spending on durable goods needs to be adjusted as they include items that are not related to the accumulation of household goods (for example, spending on goods with a lifespan of less than 1 year - tobacco products, detergents, household chemicals, perfumes and cosmetics). products).
Housing stock- the totality of all residential premises, regardless of the form of ownership, including residential buildings, specialized houses (dormitories, shelter hotels, premises for temporary settlement of refugees and internally displaced persons, homes for lonely elderly, boarding schools for the disabled, etc.), apartments and other residential premises suitable for habitation. The housing stock does not include buildings and premises intended for recreation; seasonal and temporary residence: dachas, summer garden houses, sports and tourist bases, motels, sanatoriums, rest houses, boarding houses, hotels, barracks, railway trailers, etc.
Provision of the population with housing- private department of the housing stock as of the end of the year for the number of permanent population of the country (region) on the same date. Can be calculated based on:
- the total area of the housing stock. The sum of the areas of residential and utility rooms of apartments (kitchens, front, intra-apartment corridors, bathrooms or showers, toilets, storerooms, as well as attics, mezzanines, terraces, verandas, heated and suitable for living);
- living area. Includes residential area only.
Housing construction indicators also include: commissioning of residential buildings; number and average size of apartments built; indicators of the improvement of the housing stock.
In 2008, 765.6 thousand apartments with a total area of 63.8 million square meters were put into operation, which accounted for 104.5% of the previous year; was 120.6%.
Table 1.4.
Commissioning of residential buildings from 2002 - 2008(million square meters of total area)
| years | Total commissioned | including: Individual housing construction (IZHS) (million square meters of total area) | The share of individual housing construction in the total input, percent (%) |
Among the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, the largest volumes of housing construction were carried out in the Moscow region, where 12.2% of the commissioned total housing area in Russia as a whole was commissioned, Krasnodar Territory- 6.0%, Moscow - 5.1%, St. Petersburg - 5.0%. In 2008 continued growth in the volume of individual housing construction. The population commissioned 196.7 thousand residential buildings with a total area of 27.2 million square meters at the expense of their own and borrowed funds, which amounted to 104.3% compared to 2007. At the same time, the share of individual housing construction in the total area of housing completed by construction was: in Russia as a whole - 42.7%. Consequences of the global financial crisis influenced the development of the Russian economy, in particular, the construction industry. For a long period since 2003, house prices have risen continuously. In 2008, on the whole, prices rose on average across the country by 10.3% (against the level of December 2007). However, as a result of the unfolding crisis in the financial and credit markets in the Russian Federation and abroad, the reduction in mortgage lending, the rise in prices in the housing market has stopped, in a number of regions there has been a certain downward price correction. In the fourth quarter of 2008 housing prices in the Russian Federation began to decline in quarterly terms - the decline amounted to 0.6% compared to the III quarter of 2008. Decreasing prices and sales volumes, as well as difficulties in obtaining financing in 2009, will primarily affect the reduction in supply volumes in the primary housing market, which will create the effect of pent-up demand with subsequent price growth. Thus, the needs of the population in housing in the Russian Federation as a whole is estimated at 1.6 billion square meters of new housing. They are formed, first of all, due to the need to replace dilapidated and dilapidated housing, modernize and upgrade the existing housing stock, and demographic shifts. A possible freeze by developers who are unable to find sufficient funding to implement the housing projects that have already been started could also lead to a shortage of supply, which in turn will increase the imbalance in the housing market and drive up prices. In the period 2000-2008. the growth of the per capita population in the Russian Federation as a whole corresponded to the price index in the primary housing market. The average annual income of the population in 2008 increased by 19.9% compared to the 2007 figure. A slowdown in price growth, while maintaining the current trend towards income growth, will increase the affordability of housing for the population.
Currently, the Government of the Russian Federation is taking measures to stabilize the situation in the mortgage market - to refinance AHML loans in 2008. 60 billion rubles were allocated, in 2009. at least another 250 billion rubles will be allocated, which will allow AHML to reduce the rate on mortgage loans from the current 13-18% per annum to 11-15%. one)
The scope of work performed by type of activity "Construction", in January 2009. amounted to 190.4 billion rubles, or 83.2% compared to the corresponding period of the previous year.
Table 1.5.
Dynamics of the volume of work performed by type of activity "Construction" 1)
| Billion rubles | ||||||
| previous period |
||||||
| I quarter | ||||||
| II quarter | ||||||
| I half year | |
|||||
| September | ||||||
| III quarter | ||||||
| January-September | |
|||||
| IV quarter | ||||||
| |
||||||
Housing construction. In January 2009 organizations of all forms of ownership built 35.8 thousand new apartments.
Table 1.6.
Dynamics of commissioning of residential buildings
| Million m 2 of total area | |||
| corresponding to the period of the previous year | previous period |
||
| |
|||
| I quarter | |||
| II quarter | |||
| I half year | |
||
| September | |||
| III quarter | |||
| January-September | |
||
| IV quarter | |||
| |
|||
| |
|||
1.4 Indicators of the level and limits of poverty
I. Thresholds:
1. Consumer basket- the minimum set of food products, non-food products and services necessary to maintain human health and ensure its vital activity. The consumer basket for the main socio-demographic groups of the population (the able-bodied population, pensioners, children) in the whole of the Russian Federation is determined at least once every 5 years (FZ “On the consumer basket as a whole in the Russian Federation” dated November 20, 1999). Includes:
Food: bread products, potatoes, vegetables and melons, fresh fruits, sugar and confectionery, meat products, fish products, milk and dairy products, eggs; vegetable oil, margarine; other products (salt, tea, spices).
Non-food items: upper coat group; upper costume and dress group; underwear; hosiery; headwear and haberdashery; shoes; school-written goods; bed sheets; goods for cultural, household and household purposes; essentials, sanitation and medicines. Standards are set taking into account the terms of wear.
Services: housing; central heating; cold and hot water supply and sanitation; gas supply; electricity; transport services; other types of services.
Thus, the cost of a fixed set of consumer goods and services on average in Russia at the end of January 2009 amounted to 7,292 rubles per month, an increase of 4.6% compared with the beginning of the year, according to Rosstat. 1) The set of goods and services includes 83 items of basic goods and services consumed by the population.
According to the results of January, the most expensive fixed dialing was in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug - 14,162.4 rubles, the cheapest - in the Republic of Mari El, where its price was 5,853 rubles.
The cost of fixed dialing in Moscow at the end of January 2009 amounted to 10284 rubles and increased by 4.5% over the month, in St. Petersburg - 7842.1 rubles and increased by 3.4% 2. Living wage– valuation of the consumer basket, as well as mandatory payments and fees (Federal Law of October 24, 1997 No. 134-FZ “On the subsistence minimum in the Russian Federation”). Determined quarterly per capita and by major socio-demographic groups. In general, in the Russian Federation it is established by the Government, in the regions - by the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
Table 1.7
The subsistence minimum for the Russian Federation as a whole.
(average per capita; rubles per month)
| Occupancy | From it by socio-demographic groups |
|||
| able-bodied population | pensioners | |||
| I quarter | ||||
| II quarter | ||||
| III quarter | ||||
| IV quarter | ||||
| I quarter | ||||
| II quarter | ||||
| III quarter | ||||
| IV quarter | ||||
| I quarter | ||||
| II quarter | ||||
| III quarter | ||||
| IV quarter | ||||
| I quarter | ||||
| II quarter | ||||
| III quarter | ||||
| IV quarter | ||||
| I quarter | ||||
| II quarter | ||||
| III quarter | ||||
| IV quarter | ||||
| I quarter | ||||
| II quarter | ||||
| III quarter | ||||
| IV quarter | ||||
| I quarter | ||||
| II quarter | ||||
| III quarter | ||||
| IV quarter | ||||
| I quarter | ||||
| II quarter | ||||
| III quarter | ||||
| IV quarter | ||||
In the second quarter of 2008 compared with the previous quarter, the subsistence minimum increased by an average of 5.5% (in the first quarter - by 9.9%). At the same time, the increase in the cost of food products in the consumer basket in the II quarter amounted to 9.6% (in the I quarter - 10.4%), non-food products - 2.1% (in the I quarter - 3.6%), services - 2.3%. % (in the I quarter - 12%).
Rice. 1.1
II. Poverty measures:
1. Poverty ratio - the proportion of the population with average per capita cash incomes below the subsistence level.
2. Extreme poverty rate - the proportion of the population with average per capita cash incomes below half of the subsistence level.
3. Deficit of cash income of the population - the total income of the population, missing to the subsistence level:
According to the Ministry of Economy, in Russia in 2008, despite a sharp increase in the incomes of the main income groups, the decline in the number of people living below the poverty line practically stopped. 2009 is expected to be the first last years period when the number of the poor in Russia will grow: from mid-2008 their number is mainly determined by the level of inflation. population, or 18.6 million people. During the year, the number of officially recognized poor decreased by only 100 thousand people (0.1%), a year earlier there were 18.7 million, or 13.3%.
In previous years, the number of the poor decreased much faster: in 2002, 24.6% of the population were recognized as poor, in 2004 -17.6%, in 2006 - 15.2%. . In 2008, the growth of real disposable incomes of the population decreased by almost 4.5 times and amounted to only 2.7% against 12.1% in 2007. This is due both to higher inflation in 2008 and to the unfavorable economic situation, which led to a reduction in the income of employees and entrepreneurs.
2. General indicators of the standard of living
2.1 Macroeconomic indicators
GDP, national income, net national disposable income. To study the dynamics of living standards and comparative estimates by region, the volume of GDP is calculated in real terms (in constant prices) per capita; for international comparisons, in US dollars based on the purchasing power parity of the currency. Disadvantage: these indicators contain elements that are not directly related to the standard of living (for example, the cost of maintaining the state apparatus).
The Ministry of Economy 1) for the first time estimated the scale of the decline in gross domestic product (GDP) in January 2009 - the GDP of the Russian Federation in January 2009 decreased by 2.4%. January was the second month of GDP contraction, until December 2008 its growth rates were positive, in December the reduction was 0.7%.
2.2 Demographics
Infant mortality rate, life expectancy at birth. This indicator is closely related to macroeconomic indicators, reflecting the qualitative characteristics of the standard of living.
population permanent population of the Russian Federation as of January 1, 2008 amounted to 142.0 million people and for last year decreased by 237.8 thousand people, or by 0.17% (in 2006 - by 532.6 thousand people, or by 0.37%).
The decrease in the population was due to the natural decline in the population, which in 2007. decreased compared to 2006. by 209.4 thousand people. The increased migration gain by 50.2% compensated for the numerical losses of the population.
Table 2. 1.
Indicators of the natural movement of the population.
| thousand | 2007 by 2006 | per 1000 population |
||||
| increase (+), decrease (-), thousand | ||||||
| born | ||||||
| Deceased | ||||||
| including children under the age of 1 year | ||||||
| Natural decline | | |||||
| Brakov | ||||||
| Divorces | ||||||
| 1) For 2007 - according to monthly registration, for 2006. - according to annual development data.2) Per 1000 births. |
||||||
In 2007 in all subjects of the Russian Federation, an increase in the number of births (except for the Magadan region) and a decrease in the number of deaths (except for the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug and the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug - Yugra) were noted. In the country as a whole, the excess of the number of deaths over the number of births was 1.3 times (in 2006 - 1.5 times), and in 8 constituent entities of the Russian Federation it was 2.0-2.5 times.
Natural population growth in 2007 recorded in 21 subjects of the Russian Federation (in 2006 - in 18 subjects).
In 2007 compared to 2006 the number of deaths of children under the age of 1 year decreased by 267 people, and the infant mortality rate per 1,000 births decreased by 0.8 percentage points, or 7.8%.
Table 2. 2.
General results of migration.
| Reference 2006 |
||||
| per 10 thousand people | per 10 thousand people |
|||
| Migration - total | ||||
| arrived | ||||
| retired | ||||
| including: within Russia | | | | |
| arrived | ||||
| retired | ||||
| migration increase (+), decrease (-) | ||||
| international migration | | | | |
| arrived | ||||
| retired | ||||
| migration increase (+), decrease (-) | ||||
| including: with the CIS member states | | | | |
| arrived | ||||
| retired | ||||
| migration increase (+), decrease (-) | ||||
| with foreign countries | | | | |
| arrived | ||||
| retired | ||||
| migration increase (+), decrease (-) | ||||
The migration growth of the population of Russia increased by 107.5 thousand people, or by 81.3%, which occurred as a result of the increased number of arrivals registered at the place of residence in the Russian Federation (by 100.5 thousand people, or by 53.9%) , including at the expense of immigrants from the CIS member states - by 100.1 thousand people, or by 70.3%. Along with this, there was a decrease in the number of those who left Russia by 7.0 thousand people, or 13.0%, including those to non-CIS countries - by 3.1 thousand people, or 16.6%.
The share of registered forced immigrants in the total number of those who arrived from outside the Russian Federation amounted to 0.11%.
According to the Federal Migration Service of Russia, as of January 1, 2008. there were 85.4 thousand internally displaced persons and refugees in the country.
3. Lorenz curve. Ginny coefficient
The most important tool for analyzing the socio-economic differentiation of the population is the construction of the distribution of the population according to the level of average per capita cash income, which allows a comparative assessment of the well-being of individual groups of the population.
Indicators:
- modal income, i.e. the level of income most common among the population
- medial income- an indicator of income located in the middle of the ranked distribution series
- decile coefficient of income differentiation, which characterizes how many times the minimum income of 10% of the richest population exceeds the maximum income of 10% of the poorest population
- funds ratio is defined as the ratio between the average incomes of the population in the 10th and first decile groups.
- Ginny income concentration ratio, which characterizes the degree of inequality in the distribution of incomes of the population, is determined on the basis of Lorenz curve.
The system of indicators of the level and quality of life
Inequality in income takes place, which means that the standard of living of different strata and groups of the population also differs. To change income inequality, we use M. Lorenz curve, which reflects the uneven distribution of the total income of society between different groups of the population.
Rice. 3.1.
If there is equality of income, then it is reflected by a straight line OE. If there is inequality in income, then the line ABCDE reflects the actual distribution of income and is called Lorenz curve .
G=S(T)/S ΔOEF
G is an indicator that measures the degree of income inequality - Ginny coefficient.
The greater the deviation of the Lorenz curve from the bisector OE, the greater the area of the figure T and the greater the coefficient G.
In reality, the actual distribution of income is shown by the OABCOE line. The value of G can theoretically fluctuate from 0 to 1, but in practice it does not reach these extreme values.
Obviously, the greater the deviation of the Lorenz curve from the bisector, the greater the area of the figure T, and, consequently, the more the Gini coefficient will approach 1.
Inequality in the distribution of income exists both in market economy countries and in our country.
The resolution of such an acute social problem as poverty is one of the activities of the state and is associated with support at the level of at least a living wage, as well as a reduction (by economic means) in the number of people living below the poverty line.
It should also be noted that differences in the level of consumption may also depend on factors that are not related to the internal properties of labor and its quality in the worker himself. First of all, such factors include: family size, the ratio of the number of employees and dependents in the family, health status, geographical and climatic conditions, etc.
State measures to mitigate the sharp differentiation in the incomes of the population:
1. The state makes transfer payments, distributes products and services, and also conducts state programs to stabilize incomes.
2. Through channels government programs assistance satisfies the needs for the education of new members of society, the maintenance of the elderly and the disabled, the provision (in part) of education, and the preservation of health.
Excessively active state intervention in redistribution processes, equalization of incomes leads to a decrease in business activity in society and a reduction in the efficiency of production as a whole. On the other hand, a reduction in the role of the state in regulating the incomes of the population leads to an increase in income differentiation, social tension, exacerbation of social conflicts and, as a result, to a drop in production and a decrease in its efficiency.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it should be noted that any indicator characterizing the standard of living of the population can be analyzed in dynamics and draw appropriate conclusions, forecast and evaluate the reliability of the compiled trend. During the period of market reforms, the level and quality of life in Russia have declined significantly. The human development index decreased from 0.848 in 1992 to 0.7 in 1996. According to this indicator, Russia moved into the group of developing countries. Particular indicators of the quality of life - fertility, mortality, life expectancy, morbidity - have sharply deteriorated, and the number of registered crimes has increased. Many forms of social security have deteriorated, as well as the state of the environment - atmosphere, water, soil. The decrease in the standard of living is evidenced by the fact that the share of expenditures on food has increased in the structure of the population's expenditures, with a general decrease in its calorie content. During the years of reforms, in essence, many branches of the social sphere have been destroyed and the share of household spending on paid services. The quality of medical care and education has declined. Full-fledged treatment and rest outside the permanent place of residence became inaccessible for a significant part of the population. Interregional and intersectoral differences in income and wages have intensified. Compared to the average wage in the Russian economy, the lowest wages are in the social sectors - education, healthcare, culture, science, agriculture and forestry, light industry and mechanical engineering. Significantly exceeds the average wage wages in the gas, oil and petroleum industries, non-ferrous metallurgy.
Recently special meaning to characterize the standard of living, it acquires the real exercise of the rights and freedoms of citizens: freedom of speech, belief, religion, movement, etc.; the right to a decent life, to work, to rest, to education, to social protection. The citizens of the country are thinking about the future position of Russia, its place in the world civilization, the choice of ways of economic, social, spiritual and moral development. A real assessment of the current situation in the country is given precisely by a statistical study of the standard of living of the population.
Thus, acting as an object of statistical research, the analysis of the standard of living gave a comprehensive description of the socio-economic well-being of the population.
The downward dynamics of the main macroeconomic indicators in 2008 confirms the assessment of economic growth that has been occurring since the early 2000s as unsustainable and reinforces the need to implement a set of measures aimed at the active use of internal innovative development factors, including budget policy instruments.
Summing up all of the above:
1. Improving the quality of life is the most important direction in the policy of income and wages. The level and quality of life are interrelated. The standard of living characterizes the socio-economic results of the development of society.
2. The level and quality of life are measured by a system of indicators - integral and private, natural and value. In designing income and wage policies, it is important to consider not only General characteristics level and quality of life in the country, but also their differentiation by socio-demographic, professional and income groups of the population, by regions, rural and urban areas.
3. In modern Russia most topical issues raising the level and quality of life are to ensure employment, strengthening the social security of the population, the fight against poverty.
Literature
1. Agapova T.A., Seregina S.F. Macroeconomics: Textbook / Ed. ed. A.V. Sidorovich. - M., 2007.
2. Clark J. Distribution of wealth. - M., 1964.
3. Lampert H. Social market economy. German way. - M., 1994.
4. Economic theory: Textbook: At 2 pm / Nauch. ed. V.V. Ilyashenko,
A.Yu. Kokovikhin. - Yekaterinburg, 2008.
5. Erhard L. Welfare for all. - M., 1991.
6. official website of the FMS of Russia http://www.fms.gov.ru
7. official website of the Federal Service state statistics http://www.gks.ru
8. official website of the Ministry of Economic Development http://www.economy.gov.ru
9. official website of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation http://www.cbr.ru
10. official website of the Federal educational portal ESM http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru
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The concept of "standard of living of the country's population" is a historical category. It reflects the provision of citizens with material goods and services for a specific period of time. The concept has both quantitative and qualitative content. It is supplemented by various categories of the reproductive process, new characteristics of the conditions of work, life and life. During the period of economic transformations, such definitions as “quality of life”, “cost of living”, “way of life” and a number of others have firmly entered into scientific and practical use. The emergence of this "non-traditional" terminology for Russia was a direct consequence of the use of market relations in the economy. In recent years, the concept of "quality of life" concept, which has developed on the basis of the concepts of "global employment", "quality of working life", etc., has been increasingly used in world practice in recent years.
Concepts of standard of living in countries modern world have their own national characteristics. The most common and essential components of these concepts are listed in the UN recommendations. These are health, food consumption, education, employment and organization of work, living conditions, social security, clothing, recreation and free time, human rights and the individual in general. Consequently, the concept of the standard of living forms a set of conditions that determine the physical, mental and social well-being of an individual, family or entire social strata and groups of the country's population. Not only are taken into account objective factors that determine the quality and cost of life (food, housing, work, etc.), but also a person's subjective perception of the level of his well-being (personal achievements, confidence in the future, faith in social justice, success in life, etc.).
Since the standard of living of the country's population is a complex formation, including a number of elements, a system of indicators has been developed to reflect its size and structure. For international comparison of the standard of living of the population of various countries, the so-called “human development index” is used. Three integral indicators are used to calculate this index:
1) converted national income per capita;
2) life expectancy of the population;
3) educational level.
According to these indicators, Russia ranked in 1993. 8th place among countries with a population of over 25 million. people And 37th among 173 countries of the world. In 1997 According to the Human Development Index, Russia already occupied 71st place. The value of this index in our country, according to the UN classification, was 0.747, life expectancy (in years) - 66.6 years, the adult literacy rate - 99%, the total number of enrolled educational establishments of the first, second and third levels - 77%, and real GDP per capita (purchasing power parity in US dollars) - 4370.
The standard of living of the population of individual countries of the world on a national scale is measured by a number of indicators, each of which gives an idea of some aspect of human life. There are quite a lot of these indicators, and they are closely related to the Concept of the standard of living. AT general view their system is presented in table. eleven.
Table 1 The system for assessing the standard of living of the population
| Volumetric (absolute) indicators | Specific (average) indicators |
| 1. The volume of national income used for consumption and accumulation | 1. The share of the consumption fund in the national income of the country |
| 2. Nominal income of the population | 2. Real per capita income |
| 3. Payroll | 3. Average and minimum wage |
| 4. Income from business activities | 4. Average business income per capita |
| 5. Volume of pension funds | 5. Average and minimum pension |
| 6. The volume of retail trade | 6. Trade turnover per capita |
| 7. The size of the housing stock | 7. Provision of housing per person (sq. m) |
| 8. Number of people employed in sectors of the economy | 8. Share of unemployed in the economically active population |
| 9. The amount of deposits of the population in Sberbank | 9. Average size of deposits in the country's Sberbank |
| 10. Natural population growth | 10. Life expectancy |
Russia has its own specifics for calculating the standard of living of the population, determined by the peculiarities of the historical development of our country. The indicators include:
1) consumption of the most important types of material goods and services;
2) provision with housing, communal, household and transport services;
3) development of education, health care, cultural services, social insurance and social security;
4) duration of working and free time;
5) income of the population.
According to the degree of reflection of the parameters characterizing the standard of living of the population of the country, the indicators are divided into general and particular.
General indicators the standard of living is the per capita volume of national income, consumption fund, consumer fund of national wealth (the volume of accumulated consumer property, cultural and community buildings, cultural, household and household items). These data characterize the degree of socio-economic development of society.
To private indicators the standard of living of the population can be attributed to: the level and methods of consumption, working conditions, housing, the level of social services, the conditions for raising children, social security.
Economic indicators reflect the economic aspects of the life of society, the level of human well-being, as well as the material possibilities of citizens to satisfy their physical and spiritual needs. These indicators are directly related to the reproduction of the labor force, for example, nominal and real incomes, employment, etc.
Socio-demographic indicators characterize the age and sex and professional and qualification composition of the population, the physical reproduction of the labor force (population size, its individual strata and groups, life expectancy, mortality indices, birth rates, etc.).
According to the nature of the reflection of the processes of consumption of material goods and services, indicators of the standard of living of the population are divided into value and natural.
To value indicators includes all indicators of income and consumption expressed in monetary terms (retail and wholesale trade turnover, cash disbursements and payments, cash deposits, volumes of consumption of services, etc.).
natural indicators represent the volumes of consumption of specific material goods and services in physical terms, i.e. in physical units of consumption (pieces, kilograms, square meters of living space, etc.).
According to their volumetric and structural characteristics, indicators of the standard of living of the population are divided into quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative indicators reflect the measure, volume, size of consumption of specific types of material goods and services.
Qualitative indicators reveal the structure of consumption by individual elements (food, housing, education, services, etc.).
In a separate group can be distinguished indicators, characterizing the proportions and structure distribution of the population according to the level of well-being. For example, income.
Indicators of the standard of living of the population of the country are calculated and reflected in the state (federal and regional) programs of social development, social support and social protection of the population. They are included in the plans for the development of state social funds, such as the Pension Fund of Russia, the Compulsory Medical Care Fund of the Russian Federation, the Social Insurance Fund of the Russian Population, etc. Living standards indicators are taken into account in the plans and programs for the development of individual sectors of the country's material production related to the production of food products. and non-food products, with the construction of social infrastructure facilities, with the activities of the non-production sectors themselves. A special place is occupied by calculations of the level of income and consumption of the population.
To assess the differentiation of the population in terms of living standards the following indicators are used:
1. distribution of the population according to the level of per capita cash income;
2. coefficients of income differentiation of the population;
3. distribution of the total amount of cash income by various groups of the population;
4. income concentration coefficient - Gini index;
5. population with incomes below the poverty line, poverty rate.
The distribution series of the population according to the size of the average per capita monetary income of the population are a statistical form of expression of the differentiation of the population in terms of the level of material well-being. To build the series, simulation methods are used, the essence of which is to convert the empirical series of population distribution by income level, obtained on the basis of a sample survey of households, into a theoretical distribution series. In general, the task is reduced to choosing a distribution function that most adequately reflects the pattern of income distribution, establishing the parameters of the distribution curve using empirical data, and calculating theoretical frequencies for given values of average per capita income using the found equation. As a mathematical model for describing the distribution of incomes of the population, the logarithmically normal distribution law is best suited.
To study the differentiation of income and consumption of the population, households are regrouped:
- by decile groups– ten groups are distinguished, each group contains 10% of households;
- by quintile groups- five groups, in each group 20% of the population;
- according to the purchasing power of the population- by groups that are multiples of the subsistence minimum or the cost of a set of 25 (or 31) food products.
For each selected group, the following are calculated: average cash income, its composition; average consumer spending and its structure; average per capita consumption of food, non-food products and services (per 100 households); an indicator of the purchasing power of money income (monetary income divided by the average purchase price of a given product).
Based on the distribution of the population by income, the following statistical indicators are calculated:
1. Generalizing indicators of distribution: modal meaning income, median income and average income.
modal income – income level most common among the population ( having the highest frequency).
median income is the level of income in the middle of the ranked distribution. Half of the population has an income below the median, and the other half - above.
Income differentiation coefficients, which establish the amount of increase in the monetary income of high-income groups compared to low-income groups of the population.
To indicators of cash income differentiation relate:
decile coefficient of differentiation;
funds coefficient;
Lorentz curve and Gini coefficient;
the level of poverty.
Decile coefficient of income differentiation (K d) shows how many times the minimum income among the 10% of the richest population exceeds the maximum income among the 10% of the poorest population:
where d9 and d1 are the ninth and first decile, respectively.
Funds ratio() is defined as the ratio between the average incomes of the population in the tenth and first decile groups:
where and is the average per capita income per month of 10% of the population with the minimum income and 10% of the richest part of it, respectively.
Poverty rate or the poverty rate is the proportion of the population whose income or consumption is below a national threshold (poverty line), which is usually equated to the subsistence level
Standard of living
Standard of living(welfare level) - the level of material well-being, characterized by the volume of real income per capita and the corresponding volume of consumption.
In fact, the concept of the level of well-being is not identical with the concept of the standard of living. The standard of living is a broader concept and is characterized not only by the amount of real income per capita, but also by a number of non-monetary factors. Surveys among the population can clearly prove that a significant number of individuals, in assessing their own standard of living, take into account such factors as the degree of health, the degree of moral satisfaction own life and activities, etc.
Indicators
In economics, the (general) standard of living is measured by indicators. Usually indicators are economic and social indicators. Often, as such indicators, are considered:
Rarely seen:
- The Human Development Index (HDI) is a much broader concept than gross national income, it takes into account, in addition to economic indicators, life expectancy, literacy and education levels.
- Big Mac Index : Big Mac prices in various countries.
Anthropometric data, calorie consumption and the number of working hours are, in addition to income and expenditure, additional indicators of the standard of living of the population.
Population income
Personal income (cash) is used to pay expenses. Income depends on what factors of production a person owns. If this labor resources, then for his work he receives wages, if capital, then for his investment the owner of the capital receives part of the profit (dividends, interest), if natural resources (for example, land), then the owner's income is rent. Income provides current consumption and is also set aside as savings. At the same time, the analysis of the structure of expenditures serves as a source of extremely important data for assessing the state of affairs in the economy of any country.
Need for nutrition. Engel's Law
Different goods of life have unequal value, as a result of which the needs of people are significantly differentiated in their scope. Humanity is the fastest to meet its food needs, as a result, with an increase in income, the share of food costs begins to decline first. Then comes the turn of spending on clothes and shoes, although here the process of "saturation" is slower due to the constantly changing fashion.
Several facts can serve as a critique of Engel's law. First, the relatively declining value of a person's or household's expenditure on food does not take into account the significant indeterminacy of human behavior, a much wider range of food products and related goods and services than in the 19th century, and the emergence of a fairly large range of interchangeable products that are in different price categories ( genetically modified and selected agricultural products, soybean products and natural meat products etc.) Secondly, the relatively constant amount of spending on clothing, housing and utilities with income growth does not take into account the need of a person for a certain social status and / or its external attributes, which include clothes and housing of a certain level of prestige, and As incomes rise, the consumer will in most cases need to purchase more prestigious clothing and/or a more comfortable home.
Summarizing the criticism of the formulation of Engel's law, we can say that Engel's law does not take into account the consequences of technological progress, the individual effects of the consumer society, modern technologies public opinion management (advertising, marketing, etc.)
Need for housing
It is much more difficult to meet housing demands. The lower the cost of food and clothing in the country, the higher the share of the cost of housing, which is explained by the increased quality of housing and the high degree of provision with it. Housing is a “prestigious commodity”, so people tend to buy comfortable houses and apartments not only for the sake of convenience, but also for their social status. However, there is another position. From this position, the need for housing is one of the basic human needs, since the main purpose of housing, first of all, is protection from adverse factors the external environment of a natural, social and man-made nature. Substitute products that fully or sufficiently duplicate its consumer properties and utility do not exist. From the low value of the average cost of the country's population for food and clothing, it obviously follows only that, other things being equal, the country is geographically located in areas with a favorable climate for people to live, which are also characterized by a relatively low cost of housing, associated with a low level of costs for its construction and maintenance. Engel argued (and today it is generally accepted) that if personal consumption in all countries develops according to a similar pattern, then the analysis of the structure of family expenditures makes it possible to compare the level of well-being of various groups of the population as in one country taken separately (taking as a criterion the share of family expenditures on food ), as well as in different states.
wealth inequality
When studying the question of the standard of living, the main problem is the problem of inequality of well-being, as well as the social tension generated by it in society. The gap in living standards depends on the different values of the factors of production owned by people and the efficiency of their use. A worker in a firm that produces a scarce and high-quality product may earn higher wages than a similarly skilled colleague in a firm whose goods are hard to sell. Income also depends on the volume of factors of production. Obviously, the owner of two oil wells receives, other things being equal, more income than the owner of one well.
Income inequality can reach enormous proportions and pose a threat to political and economic stability in the country, therefore, almost all developed countries of the world are forced to constantly reduce the income gap between different groups of the population. But the development of such measures is possible only with the ability to accurately determine the degree of differentiation of income and wealth and influence it with the help of public policy.
Lorenz curve
One of the methods used to assess the scale of incomes of various groups of the population is the construction of the "Lorenz curve", which allows you to determine how the real distribution of incomes of the population differs from absolute equality and inequality. With complete equality in the distribution of income, the "Lorentz curve" would be a straight line and, conversely, the curvature increases as inequality increases.
In accordance with modern economic theory both absolute equality in the distribution of income and a sharp gap in the standard of living of various groups of the population are undesirable. Absolute equality in income does not stimulate productive labor, so a certain income inequality is an extremely important means of encouraging people to work.
But if the share of 40% of the population accounts for less than 12-13% total amount income of the country, then such a bias causes sharp discontent among the poor and may be fraught with socio-economic and political upheavals. The main instruments by which the state regulates differences in incomes of different social groups, are progressive taxation, property and inheritance taxes, and a system of social benefits.
Notes
see also
| Human rights | |
|---|---|
| Fundamental concepts and categories | |
| Fiduciary contract Liberty Group rights Natural and legal rights Negative and positive rights Sovereignty Universality Universal jurisdiction | |
| Concepts that can be considered as human rights | |
| Civil and political |
Right to die English) Right to security of person Freedom Freedom of movement Freedom from slavery Personality Morphological freedom Right to arms Equality before the law Right to medical treatment Freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention Freedom from torture and ill-treatment Right to judicial protection Right to legal assistance Presumption of innocence Political asylum Citizenship Freedom from Exile Privacy Freedom of conscience Freedom of religion Freedom of speech (freedom of information) Freedom of assembly Freedom of association Right to protest Right to vote Marriage union Family life Minority rights ( English) Right to life Political freedom |
| The right to work The right to remuneration The right to a fair wage The right to social security The right to Leisure and recreation The right to property The right to culture The right to participate in public life The right to education The right to an adequate standard of living The right to development ( English) Right to health care Right to water ( English) The right to food ( English) Right to housing Consumer rights | |
| reproductive | Family planning Sexual health Induced abortion Freedom from forced female genital mutilation |
| War and armed conflict | Civilian population Combatant Freedom from genocide Captivity |
| International human rights law | |
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See what the "Standard of life" is in other dictionaries:
STANDARD OF LIVING- STANDARDS OF LIFE, social economy. a category that characterizes the level and degree of satisfaction of our material, spiritual and social needs. countries (or separate territories), classes and social groups, families, individuals. Category W. introduced K. Marx ... ... Demographic Encyclopedic Dictionary
STANDARD OF LIVING- standard of living, standard of living, economical. a category that expresses the degree of satisfaction of the material and cultural needs of people, the provision of consumer goods, which are characterized by preim. quantities. indicators ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
STANDARD OF LIVING Modern Encyclopedia
Standard of living- STANDARDS OF LIVING, the level of consumption of material and spiritual goods by the population and the degree of satisfaction of their needs at a certain stage of development of society. Includes real income per capita, level and structure of consumption… … Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
Standard of living- the level of material well-being of people, measured: either by the amount of their income: GNP per capita, etc.; or using a set of indicators of the level of material consumption: the number of cars per capita, the number of ... ... Financial vocabulary
STANDARD OF LIVING- (standard of living) The economic component of people's well-being. It is measured in terms of per capita consumption, or consumption in terms of the adult population, when the child's consumption is considered as part of ... ... Economic dictionary
The concept of "standard of living" in its modern interpretation is very capacious, covering all aspects of human activity, the totality of which gives an idea of the well-being of society as a whole and its individual members in particular. The standard of living of the population is determined, on the one hand, by the composition and magnitude of needs for various life goods (food, clothing, housing, transport, various utilities and household services, education, medical care, cultural and educational events, etc.). On the other hand, the possibility of satisfying them, based on the offers on the market for goods and services and the real incomes of people, their wages, i.e. the standard of living is understood as the level of well-being of the population, consumption of goods and services, a set of conditions and indicators that characterize the measure of satisfaction of basic vital needs.
The quality and standard of living are characteristics of one object - "life", but from different angles of view: quality - in the aspect of its diversity and personality development; level - in terms of expression in monetary and conditionally monetary form of consumption by people of various consumer components.
The standard of living characterizes social policy in terms of economic certainty, in terms of the resources necessary to ensure one or another of its qualities. In this aspect, life is a unity of quality and level. Economic evaluations are equally a characteristic of the standard of living. We can say this: the standard of living characterizes the degree of manifestation of its quality.
A number of researchers use the concepts of "well-being", "well-being" to designate the standard of living. In foreign sources, the concepts of "public welfare", "economic welfare" (economic welfare) are used. The latter is identical to the concept of "standard of living". In domestic sources, the term "welfare" usually refers to the provision of the population with material and spiritual benefits necessary for life. The emphasis is on economic security. In the modern interpretation, the term "standard of living" does not characterize people's incomes as such, but reflects, in monetary form, their consumption of various consumer complexes. All components of consumption flow from economic well-being.
In other words, the “standard of living” means the actual conditions of life and the degree of satisfaction of the needs of the population, provided with a mass of goods and services.
This characteristic has objective and subjective components. Thus, the human need for nutrients, vitamins, mineral salts is absolutely objective, while the set of products that make up this complex is subjective. We should not forget about the implementation of the universal law of the rise of needs: the growth of social production and the level of development of productive forces changes the preferences and demands of people, and therefore, the parameters for measuring the standard of living must also change. Goods, which were until recently elite, are now becoming the subject of everyday consumption. Recall that once glass was of greater value than gold, and only a very wealthy person could afford to have aluminum dishes. These facts indicate that the standard of living is a complex category that cannot be expressed using a single criterion. In its study, many indicators should be used, each of which should reflect only one of the aspects of human life.
Quality and standard of living are closely interrelated, with the former, being a broader concept, reflecting a wider range of people's needs. This concept is objective, i.e. the criteria for its evaluation are scientifically based consumption standards of the population. Based on them, a rational consumer budget is calculated, which is the most important tool for socio-economic analysis of the level and quality of life. The ratio of the actual satisfaction of needs and the developed standards indicates the degree of satisfaction of the needs of individuals, their groups, society as a whole.
The analysis of any phenomenon implies that this phenomenon will be compared with other phenomena similar to it, that the factors influencing it will be searched for, that, in the end, not only this phenomenon will be studied, but also many others interconnected with it.
When evaluating the standard of living, it is necessary to take into account many factors. First, there are historical factors. It is illogical to compare modern statistics with data from a hundred years ago and draw conclusions based only on quantitative change. Life and progress do not stand still, the needs of people are constantly growing and changing, as is the number of people living on the planet. Benefits that until recently could have been a luxury, today may no longer be in demand or even be harmful to humanity. Or, over a period of time, there will be twice as much food, but it will not be possible to say that the standard of living has increased by 100% if the population triples.
Second, there are geographic factors. The conditions in which people live can vary greatly around the planet. According to these conditions, the needs will also differ. Thus, in arid regions, people will need more clean water, food, and some simple shelter that, while protecting from heat, will not accumulate heat. At the same time, in another part of the planet, where the temperature is below zero for more than eight months a year, people will have slightly different needs. They will also need food and water, but they will need strong houses that are resistant to low temperatures, and a significant part of their income will go to heating, warm clothes and the like.
Thirdly, these are socio-cultural factors. Every culture has its own characteristics. If in one country discrimination against women is natural; most of the population does not even have a primary education and does not want to receive it; early marriages and large families are accepted, then in another country that considers itself highly developed, all this will seem savagery.
No matter how complicated the analysis of the standard of living is, it is nevertheless ordered into a clear structure and has its main components, which ensures greater objectivity and complexity of the analysis.
The following components are distinguished in the structure of the standard of living:
- 1. Conditions of human life.
- 2. Working conditions.
- 3. Conditions for human development.
- 4. Environmental safety.
living conditions. It takes into account the most basic human needs, such as consumption (both food and non-food goods and services), decent housing and health.
Working conditions. These are all the factors and conditions that a person encounters in the course of his work. This implies labor protection, the possibility of injury and the acquisition occupational diseases and sanitary and hygienic conditions in the workplace in general.
development conditions. The broadest component It includes many indicators that reflect almost all aspects of modern human life. The living conditions include the level of income and the structure of its distribution to expenses; birth, death and life expectancy levels; development of the social sphere; the existence of human rights and the level of their observance.
Environmental Safety. A relatively recent component. Describes the state of the environment and the degree of its mutual influence with man.
All these components are essentially dependent and intersect with each other, and therefore it is difficult to judge such a strict distinction between them. And in practical life, for a more accurate assessment within each component, a number of statistical indicators have been identified, which are more appropriate to use.