Differences between realism and romanticism. Romanticism: representatives, distinctive features, literary forms. General characteristics of Russian literature of the nineteenth century

Subject: general characteristics Russian literature of the 19th century.

Target: give a general idea of ​​Russian literature of the 19th century, its main features.

Tasks:

Educational:

To study the concept of "Russian classical literature";

Identify the main literary trends of the 19th century;

To acquaint with romanticism and realism as literary movements.

Developing:

Develop the ability to understand the relationship between historical events and literary works;

Develop the ability to compare literary trends;

Expand the horizons of students (epoch - literature - history);

Educational:

Raise awareness of the importance of Russian literature in the context of world culture; a sense of pride in their native country, its culture.

During the classes:

Epigraph to the lesson

“... The purpose of literature is to help a person understand himself,

raise his faith in himself and develop in him a desire for truth,

fight the vulgarity in people,

be able to find the good in them,

excite shame in their souls,

anger, courage, do everything in order

so that people become nobly strong

and could spiritualize their lives with the holy spirit of beauty...

M. Gorky

I . Organizing time.

II . Setting lesson goals.

Guys, today we are starting to study the literature of the 19th century, which was called the "golden age" of Russian literature. This is the age of Pushkin and Lermontov, Gogol and Turgenev, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy. Developing the best traditions of ancient Russian literature and literature of the 18th century, Russian literature in the 19th century reaches extraordinary heights. It goes beyond national boundaries and makes the whole of Europe, the whole world talk about itself. Russian poets and writers are not only known and read in the West, but also learn from them.

What was this time in the history of our country? What is the artistic world of literature of this period? We will try to answer these questions in today's lesson.

III . Updating of basic knowledge.

Russian literatureXIXcentury is often called classical. What do the expressions classical literature, classic, classic writer mean?

Classic -

1. antique and thus exemplary;

2. associated with the study of ancient languages ​​and literature;

3. related to classicism;

4. created by a classic, perfect, recognized, exemplary.

Classic -

1. specialist in classical philology;

2. great figure science, art, literature, whose creations retain the value of a universally recognized model.

Classical literature is canonized literature; exemplary, the most significant.

We draw attention to the polysemy of words, the possibility of double and more appropriate use of the word classic, to the conjugation of the meanings of the words classicism and classic.

IV . Perception, comprehension and assimilation of new material

General characteristics of Russian literature of the nineteenth century.

All Russian literature of the 19th century can be divided into 2 periods: literature of the first halfXIXcentury and second halfXIXcentury.

Today we are interested not only in the literature of this period, but also in the main historical events that took place at that time, since without a historical basis it is impossible to understand the reasons and motives for the appearance of certain works of Russian classics.

We will write down the main provisions of today's lecture in the form of a generalizing table, which will consist of 3 columns. It will include the name of the period of literatureXIXcentury, the most important historical events in Europe and Russia of this period, a general description of the development of Russian literature for each period.

We have already named the main periods of literatureXIXcentury and we can start filling in the 2nd column of the table.

Teacher's lecture, filling in 3 columns of the table.

The most important

historical events

in Europe and Russia

general characteristics

Russian

19th century literature

Ihalf of the nineteenth century (1795 - first half of the 1850s)

Opening of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum (1811). Patriotic War 1812. Revolutionary and national liberation movements in Europe.

The emergence of secret Decembrist organizations in Russia (1821-1822). Decembrist uprising (1825) and its defeat.

The reactionary politics of NicholasI. Persecution of freethinking in Russia. The crisis of serfdom, public reaction. Strengthening democratic tendencies. Revolutions in Europe (1848-1849), their suppression

Development of the European cultural heritage. Attention to Russian folklore. Sunsetclassicism andsentimentalism . Origin and flourishingromanticism.

Literary societies and circles, publication of magazines and almanacs. The principle of historicism put forward by Karamzin. Romantic aspirations and fidelity to the ideas of the Decembrists in the works of Pushkin and Lermontov. Originrealism and its coexistence next to romanticism. Replacing poetry with prose. Transition to realism and social satire. Development of the "little man" theme. Confrontation between the literature of the "Gogol school" and poets-lyricists of a romantic plan

II half of the nineteenth century (1852-1895)

Russia's defeat in the Crimean War. Death of Nicholas I (1855).

The rise of the democratic movement and peasant unrest. Crisis of autocracy.

Abolition of serfdom. The beginning of bourgeois transformations.

Democratic ideas of populism. Activation of covert terrorist organizations

Assassination of Alexander II. Strengthening the reactionary policy of tsarism. The theory of "small things". The growth of the proletariat.

Propaganda of the ideas of Marxism.

Strengthening censorship and repression of progressive writers (Turgenev, Saltykov-Shchedrin). The weakening of censorship after the death of NicholasI. The development of dramaturgy and the realistic novel. New themes, problems and heroes. The leading role of the journals Sovremennik and Otechestvennye Zapiski. The emergence of a galaxy of populist poets. Opening of the monument to Pushkin in Moscow. The ban on cutting-edge magazines and the rise of entertainment journalism. Poetry of "pure art". Exposure of public order and social inequality. The growth of fabulously legendary and fantastic plots

The concept of romanticism and realism.

We have already found out that the main trends in Russian literatureXIXcenturies were romanticism and realism. What are these literary movements? What is their essence? How do they differ from each other? Filling in the table:

Romanticism and Realism in Russian Literature of the 19th Century

Romanticism

Realism

Origin and development

Arose under the influence of German and English literature in the works of Zhukovsky, Batyushkov. Received development after the war of 1812 in the work of the Decembrist poets, the early work of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol

It arose in the 1820-1830s in the work of Pushkin, developed by Lermontov and Gogol. The novels of Turgenev, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy are considered the pinnacle of Russian realism in the second half of the 19th century.

Artistic world, problems and pathos

Image of the inner world of a person, the life of his heart. Tension of feelings, discord of a person with reality.

Ideas of freedom, interest in history and strong personalities. Romantic double world

The depiction of life in life-like images, the desire for a deep knowledge of "ordinary" life, a wide coverage of reality in its cause-and-effect relationships. Socio-critical pathos in the depiction of reality

Events and heroes

Image of exceptional, extraordinary events and heroes. Lack of attention to the past of heroes, static images. The rise and idealization of a hero alienated from reality

The image of the movement of human life, the development of the individual under the influence of the social environment, the dynamism of images. Reality requires the hero to be involved in it.

Language

Subjectivity and emotionality of the author's language and style, emotionally colored vocabulary and syntax

The conciseness of style in the realistic prose of the beginning of the century and the complexity of language structures in the prose of the second half of the century, due to the study of cause-and-effect relationships in public life

The fate of the direction

The crisis of romanticism begins in the 1840s. Gradually, he gives way to realism and interacts with it in a difficult way.

In the second half of the century, criticism of public life intensifies, the development of human ties with his close environment, the "microenvironment" expands, the critical pathos of the image of reality intensifies.

V . Summing up the lesson.

Conversation on:

Why is the 19th century of literature called "Golden"?

Which poets and writers belong to the "golden age"?

What is the difference between romanticism and realism? What is their main difference?

Teacher's word: Russian literature of the nineteenth century absorbed the richest spiritual experience humanity. She raised and tried to solve the most important social and moral issues, proclaimed love for the world and man and hatred for all manifestations of oppression, admired the courage and strength of the human soul. Russian literature creatively used the experience of European literatures, but did not imitate them, but created original works based on Russian life and its problems.

VI . Homework - read Zhukovsky's ballads

Synopsis on cultural studies

ROMANTICISM- a protest against the harsh contradictory reality. Romanticism was engendered by the dissatisfaction of broad public circles with the results of the bourgeois revolution, the protest against national enslavement, and political reaction. Representatives of romanticism are characterized by disappointment in the teachings of the Enlightenment.

1. This is a direction that divides the world into 2 worlds: - the world of reality, which the romantic rejects; - the world of dreams, the realization of which the author finds in another world that does not exist today (the world of the soul, antiquity ..).

2. Romanticism is an opponent of classicism (there is no unity of place, time and action), it recognizes development. Often in the works of heroes yavl. robbers, outcasts, rebels. For romance there is no source bad people, social made them so. society.

3. R. is divided into 2 directions: irrational and heroic. Hoffmann - at the origins of romanticism. His works are characterized by drama and sarcasm, lyricism and grotesque, critical perception of being - "The Worldly Views of the Cat Moore", "Devil's Elixir", "Golden Pot".

R. considers the problem of the difficulty of the young generation's entry into social and working life. Byron Childe Gagold's Pilgrimage. Heinrich Heine Keats "Fire", "Psyche". Representatives of the romantic movement showed considerable interest in the national past, traditions of folklore and culture of their own and other peoples, sought to create universal picture of the world. R. does not end in the 19th century; it continues into the 20th century.

Realism in European Literature.

REALISM approved in the 30s - 40s

Realism is a truthful, objective reflection of reality.

Realism arose in France and England in the conditions of the triumph of the bourgeois order. The social antagonisms and shortcomings of the capitalist system determined the sharply critical attitude of realist writers towards it. They denounced money-grubbing, flagrant social inequality, selfishness, hypocrisy. In its ideological focus, it becomes critical realism. Together with it is permeated with the ideas of humanism and social justice.

In France, in the 1930s and 1940s, they created their best realistic works by Opore de Balzac, who wrote the 95-volume Human Comedy;

Victor Hugo - "Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris”, “The ninety-third year”, “Les Miserables”, etc. Gustave Flaubert - “Madame Bovary”, “Education of the Senses”, “Salambo” Prosper Merimo - master of short stories “Mateo Falcone”, “Colomba”, “Carmen”, playwright , historical chronicles "Chronicle of the times of Karl10", etc.

In the 30s and 40s in England. Charles Dickens is an outstanding satirist and humorist, the works "Dombey and Son", "Hard Times", "Great Expectations", which are the pinnacle of realism. William Makepeace Thackeray in the novel "Vanity Fair", in the historical work "History of Henry Esmond", a collection of satirical essays "The Book of Snobs", figuratively showed the vices inherent in bourgeois society.

In the last third of the 19th century the world sound is acquired by the literature of the Scandinavian countries. First of all, these are the works of Norwegian writers: Heinrich Ibsen - the dramas "A Doll's House" ("Nora"), "Ghosts", "Enemy of the People" called for the emancipation of the human personality from hypocritical bourgeois morality. Bjornson dramas "Bankruptcy", "Beyond our strength", and poetry. Knut Hamsun - psychological novels "Hunger", "Mysteries", "Pan", "Victoria", which depict individuals against the philistine environment.

In 80 ch. the direction of Franz. Lit-ry is nano-naturalism Goncourt brothers, Emile Zola

MUSIC L. van Beethoven (German)

Painting is realistic. Direction. Delacroix "The Massacre of Chios", "Liberty Leading the People" "The Capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders"

Realistic landscape -Pousseau, Daubigny.

Realist direction - Daumier "Burlak". "Soup", "Z-Class Car"

Courier "Stone Crushers", "Funeral in Ornar" Monet "Haystacks" "Impression, Rising Sun".

The contradictions between m / y architecture and new technology, archaic forms and the new purpose of buildings tried to resolve the new style " modern» Architects Gaudi (Spain), Mackintosh (Great Britain) In the field of sculpture, the creative work of French sculptors Rodin "The Bronze Age" "The Thinker" had a profound impact on all national schools to restore the lost power over the minds. Many painters, poets, sculptors, architects abandoned the idea of ​​humanism, inheriting only the manner, technique (the so-called Mannerism). 17-18 in During this period, the dominance of religious thinking was undermined, and observation and experiment (experiment) were established as the leading methods of research.

Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy

Federal Agency for Health and Social Development

Department of Social Sciences and Humanities

Test

Cultural Studies

On the topic: Two lines in Russian culture ХI10th century: romanticism and realism.

Performed:

3rd year student

group 31 "Z."

Faculty of Pharmacy

Yakovleva Elena

Valerievna

Nizhny Novgorod

WORK PLAN:

1. The role of literature in the socio-political and cultural life of Russia.

2. Features of Russian romanticism. Russian poets - romantics, the main themes of their works.

3. Characteristic features of critical realism.

The role of literature in the socio-political and cultural life of Russia.

The war of 1812 was an event that had a major impact on the development of Russian society and Russian literature. All the people rose to defend the Fatherland from the invasion of Napoleon. The war awakened the national consciousness of the Russian people. The peasant who became a soldier liberated Russia and Europe. He felt his power and importance and hoped he had freed himself. But after the war, the position of the peasants became even more difficult (“Arakcheevshchina”, military settlements, state bureaucracy). The indignant people rebelled and rebelled, the uprisings were brutally suppressed by the autocracy.

The war of 1812, the plight of the people, the policy of autocracy, acquaintance with the advanced political and philosophical thought of Western Europe - all this led to the emergence of secret societies that aimed at overthrowing the autocracy. The future Decembrists did not consider the people an active political force and relied on a conspiracy. For the ideology of Decembristism, reflected in the works of the Decembrist poets K.F. Ryleeva, A.A. Bestuzheva, A.I. Odoevsky, V.K. Küchelbecker, thoughts about the high civil purpose of poetry, motifs of tyranny, high moral ideals, patriotism. One of the most significant freedom-loving works of the Decembrists is a poem by K.F. Ryleev (1795 - 1826) "Citizen". “I am not a poet, but a citizen” - this is the creative position proclaimed by Ryleev in this poem. Poetry, like all life, must be subordinated to the "struggle for the oppressed freedom of man," he believed. Creating his "Dumas", Ryleev set himself the task of "reminding the youth of the exploits of their ancestors, acquainting them with the brightest epochs of folk history, making love for the Fatherland with the first impressions of memory." Glorifying the courage and heroism shown in the struggle for the national independence of the motherland, for the liberation of the people from foreign domination - this is the main theme of the thoughts "Ivan Susanin", "Dmitry Donskoy", "The Death of Yermak" (the last of them became a folk song). Ryleev, devoting his thoughts outstanding people nation, sometimes disdainfully transforms the characters, endowing them with the features of his time. The heroes act in exceptional psychological circumstances, emphasizing the originality of their personality. The dramatic nature of the development of events makes the thought related to the ballad.

The ideas of the Decembrists had a strong influence on the development of Russian literature; they were reflected in the work of such writers as A.S. Pushkin, A.S. Griboyedov, M.Yu. Lermontov.

The first quarter of the nineteenth century was distinguished by the diversity of the literary movement. This period was characterized by a clash, struggle, mutual influence of various literary trends that existed not only replacing each other, but also in parallel, reflecting complex development processes. public thought that time. Classical artistic tendencies were still alive (in Ryleev’s “Citizen”), there was still the influence of sentimentalism (N. M. Karamzin), but a new literary era was more and more loudly declaring itself - the era of romanticism, which became the leading literary trend, and its most prominent representatives were V. A. Zhukovsky, K. N. Batyushkov.

Russian literature of the first quarter of the 19th century is characterized by a keen sense of the unity of the nation, faith in the great future of the Russian people and society. It was at this time that the poet created, in whose works the “Russian spirit” manifests itself in all its beauty and strength. We are talking about the great fabulist I. A. Krylov. A realistic method of reflecting reality began to take shape in his work. The method of realism was fully formed and embodied in the work of A. S. Pushkin.

A vivid idea of ​​the artistic searches of Russian poetry of this time is given by the friendly messages of P. A. Vyazemsky, the sparkling lines filled with military spirit and daring by the warrior poet Denis Davydov, and the philosophical and psychological lyrics of E. A. Baratynsky.

One of the most significant events in the literary life of Russia in the first half of the 40s was the publication of Gogol's poem "Dead Souls" and the story "The Overcoat", which marked a new stage in the development of Russian realism. The social and personal pathos of these works - a critical display of social forms of Russian life that contradicted popular ideals, pain for the fate of the country, sharpness on the theme of the "little man" - was enthusiastically received by all progressive writers of that time. In Russia in the 40s - 50s. literature was, according to A. I. Herzen, the only "tribune" of social and cultural disputes, and therefore the writer's creative views were an expression of his social position. The ideas of a new artistic direction were formulated by V.G. Belinsky. A group of young writers is forming around him, for whom the artistic principles of realism, proclaimed by Pushkin, Gogol, Lermontov, are the starting point of creativity. The representative of the conservative camp, F. V. Bulgarin, pejoratively called this group a “natural school”, but the expression stuck, becoming an aesthetic slogan and a literary term. "Writing off" from nature was regarded as a hallmark of an advanced writer. From now on, literature chooses as its material that which earlier, during the romantic period of its development, was rejected as deliberately "non-poetic", "low", unworthy of the artist's attention. The problem of personality, pressure on a person environment, studies of his numerous social connections are put forward at the center of the narrative of a realistic work.

Since literature is a specific area of ​​knowledge of truth, then special meaning acquires a typing problem. Literature of the 40s creates socio-historical types, "heroes of their time", which reflected the most important patterns of this stage community development. A type is a fact of reality, but carried through the poet's fantasy, illuminated by the light of the general. Thus, the artistic type in realistic literature is understood not as a widespread phenomenon, but as a natural phenomenon, characteristic of a certain stage in the development of society. Historicism, i.e. displaying phenomena in their historical concreteness becomes the main feature of realistic artistic thinking. The creation of historically specific socio-psychological characters, in which the most important patterns of the era are imprinted, developing in accordance with their own internal logic, and not at the arbitrariness of the author, is a defining feature of realistic art.

Realist writers strove to recreate life-like pictures in their works, to show a person in interaction with his environment, to reveal the mechanism of social relations and, in general, objective, i.e. not dependent on the will of specific people, the laws of social development.

These trends were clearly manifested in the work of representatives of the "natural school". The ideologist of this school was V.G. Belinsky, and its core was D.V. Grigorovich, I.S. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, I.A. Herzen, N. A. Nekrasov, F. M. Dostoevsky. The journal Sovremennik, headed by N.A. Nekrasov and I.I. Panin.

40s - the time of concentrated reflection by the noble intelligentsia historical destinies Russia. The country was dominated by political reaction, which intensified in the late 1940s. in connection with the wave of revolutionary uprisings in Europe, and therefore, the youth, thirsting for vigorous activity, was forced to confine itself to exclusively intellectual pursuits, not being able to realize the ability for practical action in the socio-political field. This is how the type of Russian nobles appeared, who in the Russian reality of that time did not find application for their spiritual and intellectual powers. This is how the literary type of the “superfluous person” appeared.

Since the mid 50s. there has been a revival in the socio-political life of Russia, which was directly related to the death of Nicholas I, known for his hostility to the printed word, with the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War. This military campaign showed the economic and technical backwardness of Russia from the countries of Western Europe, revealing the need for reforms. Preparations for reforms began in the country, which gave rise to a new social force - the non-class intelligentsia, the so-called "raznochintsy". Gradually, the “raznochintsy” are crowding out the noble intelligentsia from the forefront of socio-political life as they have exhausted their historical possibilities. This process is reflected in the works of Turgenev, Chernyshevsky and other writers. This short period of public upsurge ended with Karakozov's assassination attempt on Emperor Alexander II on April 4, 1866. A new period has come in the socio-political life of Russia, which has given rise to a sense of historical hopelessness and general pessimism.

Since art is a specific area of ​​cognition of truth, the problem of typification is of particular importance.

It was in the 19th century that Russia made almost the most significant contribution to world culture in the field of literature, except for the 20th century, which may well compete with it in the abundance of world-class literary talents: N.M. Yazykov, V.A. Zhukovsky, E.A. Baratynsky, F.I. Tyutchev, N.N. Batyushkov, I.A. Krylov, A.S. Griboedov, A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, N.A. Nekrasov, A.A. Fet, A.N. Maykov, Ya.P. Polonsky, F.M. Dostoevsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.N. Ostrovsky, I.A. Goncharov, L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, D.N. Mamin-Sibiryak, V.M. Garshin, V.G. Korolenko.

This is, in general terms, the path of development of Russian literature in the context of the socio-political life of the country. Literature not only reflects the collisions and stages of socio-political development, it is an independent and self-valuable phenomenon that has its own laws, which determine the changes in artistic forms and images that form the basis of the self-movement of literature.

Features of Russian romanticism. Russian poets - romantics, the main themes of their works.

Romanticism is a productive creative method that affirms the dialectical unity of the ideal and the material in the world (the so-called dual world), their confrontation as the basis for the development of an event. Romanticism affirmed the limitless possibilities of an active personality, capable of rising above social laws and reshaping the world, influencing its ideal essence. This method formed the romantic artistic system. The ratio of directions and currents in it can be represented by the scheme:

Romanticism is a creative method

Romanticism - art system

Romanticism Symbolism Neoromanticism Fantasy

(direction) (direction) (direction) (direction)

German English French Russian Romanticism

romanticism romanticism romanticism usa romanticism

English English French Russian fantasy

neo-romanticism aestheticism symbolism symbolism USA

(flow) (flow) (flow) (flow) (flow)

Romantics discovered the dialectic of psychological states for literature, they were the first to create characters based on deep internal contradictions (Adolf by B. Konstan, Yuri Miloslavsky by M.N. Zagoskin); they posed a number of deep philosophical problems (“Melmont the Wanderer” by Ch. R. Metyurin); opened the theme of “humiliated and insulted” (“Les Misérables” by V. Hugo) in literature. Romanticism reconstructed the system of lyrical genres, created a historical novel (V. Scott, M.N. Zagoskin), a philosophical fairy tale (E.T.A. Hoffman), a scientific-philosophical novel (M. Shelley), a psychological detective story (E.A. Poe), a romantic poem (D.G. Byron). He laid the foundations for the artistic analysis of social relations. Throughout the 19th century, he actively interacted with realism; it was the neo-romanticists who took upon themselves the brunt of the confrontation, overcoming the extremes of decadence in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The productivity of the romantic method manifested itself in the 20th century when "fantasy" arose; on the basis of romantic traditions, such outstanding works as “The Master and Margarita” by M. A. Bulgakov, “The Little Prince” by A. de Saint-Exupery, “The Lord of the Rings” by J. R. R. Tolkien and others were created.

Romanticism is one of the brightest and most significant trends in art. It originated initially in Germany, a little later in England, then spread to almost all European countries. He had a huge impact on world culture. English poet J. Byron, novelist Walter Scott, German writers E. T. A. Hoffmann and G. Heine, Danish storyteller G. - H. Andersen, Americans E. Poe and F. Cooper, Polish poet A. Mickiewicz - all of them romance.

Romanticism reflects the attitude that was formed in the revolutionary era, the beginning of which was laid by the Great French Revolution (1789). It was a time of gigantic social upheavals, bourgeois revolutions, national liberation wars. And it was a time of great expectations and disappointments, a time of decisive changes in people's minds. The Great French Revolution did not bring people either freedom, or justice, or the "kingdom of reason." The old was destroyed, and the even more prosaic and colorless “kingdom of money” became new. Faith in the power of the human mind, characteristic of the 18th century and reflected in the art of classicism, was now undermined. The man felt lonely, restless.

In the clash of conflicting moods, a new artistic method of reflecting reality is being formed - romanticism.

A characteristic feature of romanticism is extreme dissatisfaction with reality, doubt that the life of society or even an individual can be built on the principles of goodness, reason, and justice. On the other hand, the romantic worldview is distinguished by the dream of reorganizing the world, renewing man, and an irresistible desire (against logic and facts) for a lofty ideal.

The contradiction between the ideal and reality, the feeling of an abyss between them and the thirst for their reunion is the defining feature, the main conflict of romanticism, the source of intense tragic experiences.

The main enemy of the romantics is a prudent and self-satisfied layman, a person with a dead soul, for whom the meaning of life is satiety, peace, and profit. Therefore, the romantics saw their main goal in tearing the reader out of the cramped world of life and captivating him as far as possible from the gray everyday life. Romantics sang and poeticized everything unusual. They showed especially great interest in fantasy and folk legends, distant countries, past historical eras, the life of tribes and peoples untouched by European civilization, the natural world.

Romantics were interested in exceptional personalities - titanic and powerful. The object of constant attention and depiction of romantics is the complexity and deep contradictory nature of the inner world of a person, its richness and diversity. Their work is characterized by the opposition of the hero and the crowd. The romantic hero is always in conflict with society, he is an exile, a renegade, a wanderer. He often rebels against unfair social orders, established forms of life.

Romantics believed that only in art can they fully reveal Creative skills person. In contrast to the supporters of classicism, who elevated art to strict rational rules, the romantics were convinced that inspiration and creativity did not fit into any framework, that every real artist creates a work according to his own laws.

The work of romantic writers is distinguished by unprecedented intensity and sharpness of experience, awareness of the power and freedom of the human spirit, violent emotionality, tension of style, and sharp contrasts. These are the general features of romanticism.

The emergence of romanticism in Russia is associated with the socio-ideological atmosphere of Russian life - a nationwide upsurge after the war of 1812. All this led not only to the formation, but also to the special nature of the romanticism of the Decembrist poets, whose work was animated by the idea of ​​civil service, imbued with the pathos of freedom and struggle.

The works of romantic writers who lived in different countries, contain significant differences generated not only by the creative individuality of each of the creators, but also by the uniqueness of social conditions, culture and artistic traditions in each country.

Features of Russian romanticism. The works of Russian romantics reflected the disillusionment of progressive people in the existing autocratic-feudal order and the vagueness of the paths of the country's historical development. At the same time, Russian romanticism reflected the beginning awakening of national self-consciousness. Romantic ideas and moods are presented in Russian literature, as it were, in a softened version. Not so acute and global conflicts of the individual and the crowd, for example. A close connection with other literary trends of his era remained (primarily with classicism and sentimentalism).

Romanticism originated in Russia at the very beginning of the 19th century, but took shape as an independent artistic method only by the 1920s. The tragic events of 1825 determined the features of the further development of Russian romanticism. The pinnacle of romanticism in the 1930s. - works by M. Yu. Lermontov.

The characteristic features of romanticism in Russia were:

1. The accelerated development of literature in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century led to the “running in” and the combination of various stages that were experienced in stages in other countries. In Russian romanticism, pre-romantic tendencies intertwined with the tendencies of classicism and the Enlightenment: doubts about the omnipotent role of reason, the cult of sensitivity, nature, elegiac melancholy were combined with the classic orderliness of styles and genres, moderate dictatism (edification) and the struggle against excessive metaphor for the sake of "harmonic accuracy" (expression A. S. Pushkin).

2. A more pronounced social orientation of Russian romanticism. For example, the poetry of the Decembrists, the poetry of M.Yu. Lermontov.

In Russian romanticism, such genres as elegy and idyll are especially developed. Very important for the self-determination of Russian romanticism was the development of the ballad (in the work of V. A. Zhukovsky). The contours of Russian romanticism were most sharply defined with the emergence of the genre of the lyric-epic poem (the southern poems of A. S. Pushkin, the works of I. I. Kozlov, K. F. Ryleev, M. Yu. Lermontov, etc.). The historical novel is developing as a great epic form (M. N. Zagoskin, I. I. Lazhechnikov). A special way of creating a large epic form is cyclization, that is, the unification of apparently independent (and partially published separately) works (“The Double, or My Evenings in Little Russia” by A. Pogorelsky, “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by N. V. Gogol, “Russian night" by V. F. Odoevsky, "Heroes of our time" by M. Yu. Lermontov).

At the origins of Russian romanticism are two remarkably bright figures - Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky and Konstantin Nikolayevich Batyushkov.

It was said about Zhukovsky that nature itself took care to create in him a “Russian echo” for Western European romanticism. Zhukovsky's poetry was not a mere echo of foreign masterpieces.

You should not look in his own poetry for a direct reflection of the many trials he experienced. Everything concrete, personal - not in the plots, but in the very spirit of his works ...

In the elegy "Rural Cemetery" (1802), a free translation of a poem by the English poet T. Gray, the feelings of the fragility of earthly life were captured with an unusual for Russian poetry penetration. "The habit of superstitious legend" gave birth to numerous ballads of Zhukovsky. The most famous of them are "Lyudmila" (1808) and "Svetlana" (1813), created on the basis of the poem "Lenora" by the German poet Gottfried August Burger. These ballads tell about the invasion of everyday life by mysterious, otherworldly forces. As for the “aspiration beyond the limits of the world,” it permeates literally all of Zhukovsky’s work. It is no coincidence that, with the light hand of the poet, the words “far” and “far” will become almost symbols of Russian romanticism.

Romantic alienation from the worries and tastes of the crowd, and the "mob", in their own way, was expressed by other poets.

Batyushkov's muse looks very different from Zhukovsky's muse. The intoxication with love, earthly goods, the glorification of sensual beauty, it would seem, have nothing in common with the sad languor of the author of Lyudmila and Svetlana. But there is something disturbing, frightening in this ecstasy. The poet surrenders to pleasure, constantly remembering the threat of imminent death.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Yazykov (1803 - 1847), whose youth was associated with Dorpat University, glorified the free spirit of student feasts. The free spirit opposes both violence ("fetters"), and the highest, royal power, whose symbol is a scepter, a rod with precious stones.

Anton Antonovich Delvig (1798 - 1831) found a poetic refuge in antiquity. Delvig also attracted the world of Russian folklore. His Russian songs surpassed everything that was created in this kind.

Philosophical lyrics, the so-called poetry of thought, became a special trend in Russian romanticism. One of its prominent representatives is Dmitry Vladimirovich Venevitinov (1805 - 1827), head of the Moscow circle of "Lyubomudrov".

Pushkin had a chance to say the decisive word in the fate of the new literary trend in Russia.

In the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" (1820), Pushkin more fully than anyone else expressed interest in his native antiquity, romantically transformed, veiled with a haze of irony, colored by a variety of feelings young man XIX century. The elegy “The daylight went out ...”, written on the night of August 18-19, 1820 on a ship when moving from Feodosia to Gurzuf, is an agitated monologue of a poet deeply disappointed with life. The intonation of the verse, as it were, echoes the vibrations of the water abyss. This impression is created by the repeated couplet:

Noise, noise, obedient sail,

Worry under me, gloomy ocean...

The reader not only hears the sound of the wind and waves, but, together with the poet, plunges into the past, in which, it turns out, there was a lot of sad and bitter things: both betrayal and vain expectations of happiness.

I fled you, fatherly land;

I fled you, pets of pleasure,

Momentary joy minute friends ...

In these lines there is a feeling, typical for romantics, of the transience and transience of everything earthly, the deceitfulness of pleasures and blessings.

“The star of the day went out…” directly precedes the so-called southern poems of Pushkin - “The Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “The Fountain of Bakhchisarai”, “Brothers Robbers” and “Gypsies”.

Ivan Ivanovich Kozlov (1779 - 1840). Some poems by I.I. Kozlov, which became songs ("Evening Bells") are popular today. Contemporaries were especially impressed by his poem "The Chernets" - the woeful confession of a monk who takes revenge on the "murderer of his son and wife", and therefore bitterly repents and dies. The tragically hopeless fate of the hero corresponded to romantic taste.

Beginning in the 1840s, romanticism in the main European countries gave way to the leading position of critical realism and faded into the background. The influence of "Chernets" is easily detected in Lermontov's "Mtsyri".

Characteristic features of critical realism.

A productive creative method that based the artistic world of literary works on the knowledge of the social ties of man and society, a truthful, historically concrete depiction of the characters and circumstances of their multilateral interdependence. Established an art system. The ratio of the realistic method, artistic system, directions and currents within it can be represented by the following diagram:

Realism is an art system

realism realism frontier realism

nineteenth century XIX - XX centuries. 20th century

(direction) (direction) (direction)

German English French Russian realism

realism realism realism realism usa

(flow) (flow) (flow) (flow) (flow)

Realism (from the Pozdelatin realis - real, real) is a literary and artistic trend of the 19th - 20th centuries. originates in the Renaissance (the so-called "Renaissance realism") or in the Enlightenment ("enlightenment realism"). Features of realism are noted in ancient and medieval folklore, ancient literature. Realism has the following distinctive features:

1. The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.

2. Literature in realism is a means of a person's knowledge of himself and the world around him.

3. Cognition of reality comes with the help of images created by typing the facts of reality (“typical characters in a typical setting”). Typification of characters in realism is carried out through the truthfulness of details in the "concreteness" of the conditions of the characters' existence.

4. realistic art - life-affirming art, even in the tragic resolution of the conflict. The philosophical basis for this is gnosticism, faith in the knowability and adequate reflection of the surrounding world, unlike, for example, romanticism.

5. Realistic art is inherent in the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect and capture the emergence and development of new forms of life and social relations, new psychological and social types.

Realism as a literary trend was formed in the 30s of the nineteenth century. The immediate predecessor of realism in literature was romanticism. Making the subject of the image unusual, creating an imaginary world special circumstances and exceptional passions, romanticism at the same time showed a personality richer in spiritual, emotional terms, more complex and contradictory than was available to classicism, sentimentalism and other trends of previous eras. Therefore, realism developed not as an antagonist of romanticism, but as its ally in the struggle against the idealization of social relations, for the national-historical originality of artistic images (the color of the place and time). It is not always easy to draw clear boundaries between romanticism and realism in the first half of the 19th century; in the work of many writers, romantic and realistic features merged into one - the works of O. Balzac, Stendhal, V. Hugo, and partly C. Dickens. In Russian literature, this was especially clearly reflected in the works of A.S. Pushkin and M.Yu. Lermontov.

In Russia, where the foundations of realism were laid by the work of A.S. Pushkin ("Eugene Onegin", "Boris Godunov", " Captain's daughter”, late lyrics) back in the 1820s - 1830s, as well as some other writers (“Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboyedov, fables by I.A. Krylov), this stage is associated with the names of I.A. Goncharov , I.S. Turgenev, N.A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky and others, it is customary to call the realism of the 19th century "critical", since the defining principle in it was precisely the socially critical. The aggravated socially critical pathos is one of the main features of Russian realism - for example, The Inspector General, Dead Souls by N.V. Gogol, the activities of the writers of the "natural school". The realism of the 2nd half of the 19th century reached its heights precisely in Russian literature, especially in the work of L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky, who became the central figures of the world literary process at the end of the 19th century. They enriched world literature with new principles for constructing a socio-psychological novel, philosophical and moral issues, new ways of revealing the human psyche in its deepest layers.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

AND ABOUT. Rodin, T.M. Pimenova Schoolchildren's Handbook. Literature. AST "Astrel" Moscow 2004

E.L. Beznosov, E.L. Erokhin and others. Big reference book. Literature. "Drofa" Moscow 2002

M.D. Aksenova. Russian literature. From epics and chronicles to the classics of the nineteenth century. "Avanta +" Moscow 2000

A.I. Kravchenko. Culturology. "Tricksta" 2005

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ROMANTICISM AND REALISM in the work of L., one of the central problems of Lermontov studies; its insufficient elaboration is explained by the complexity, inseparability of the very concepts of “romanticism” and “realism”, which in total usually designate an artist. methods, directions and styles corresponding to them, as well as the originality of the artist. the world of L., the incompleteness of his work. way, the transitional nature of cultural and historical. era. Creativity L. belongs to the top achievements of Russian. romantic lit-ry; it most fully, holistically embodied Ch. features of romanticism as lit. directions and artists. method, absorbed the traditions of the diverse romantic. currents and schools - fatherlands. and foreign. L. acted primarily as a successor to the romantic. traditions of V. A. Zhukovsky, A. S. Pushkin, E. A. Baratynsky, Decembrist poets (see Russian literature of the 19th century). At the same time, his work is in many ways different from the romanticism of the 1810s-1820s, which is still closely connected with the previous literature. directions (classicism, enlightenment, sentimentalism), with anacreontic. poetry. In Lermont. romantic time. beginnings deepen and develop; in the atmosphere of the post-December reaction, the collapse will enlighten. illusions and politics doctrines of the progressive noble intelligentsia clearly reveal the fundamental features of the romantic. worldview: intense individualism, the search for absolute life values, an all-encompassing disappointment in reality. Societies. the contradictions now seem tragically insoluble, the desire for freedom - futile, and human consciousness is initially dual - the arena of the incessant struggle between good and evil, "earthly" and "heavenly" principles. This outlook. the complex brings L.-romance closer to Ch. representatives of the ideological literature. movements of the 30s: writers-wise, N. V. Stankevich and the poets of his circle, V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogarev, V. S. Pecherin, etc. Finally, an important Numerous people played a role in shaping L.'s creativity. Western European phenomena. liters, incl. F. Schiller and J. Byron, A. Lamartine and A. Vigny, V. Hugo and O. Barbier, French school. "frantic literature" (see the works of B. Eikhenbaum). In production L. traces of diverse influences are clear, it is easy to detect numerous in them. reminiscences and direct textual borrowings from various lit. sources - a circumstance that more than once gave reason to consider his poetry as something dependent, secondary. Modern Lermontov studies opposes such judgments with the idea of ​​organic. assimilation and deep processing of L. Russian traditions. and European literature, about the unique originality of L. the artist, the synthetic nature of Lermont. romanticism. In the work of L., equally striking in the ruthlessness of denial and the mighty flight of dreams, reaches the ultimate stress of the main. the contradiction of romanticism is the contradiction between the ideal and reality. Moreover, both of these beginnings are closely interconnected: the depth and strength of disappointment appear in L. as a direct consequence of his increased demands on people, the world, himself (the soul, thirsting for perfection, “... in the present everything is not so, / As she would like , meets "-" Glory "); and vice versa - the rejection of reality, seemingly brought to the limit, strengthens the desire for an ideal, strengthens “proud faith in people and another life” (“In Memory of A. I. Odoevsky”). Like the heroes of Byron, romantic. L.'s personality comes into conflict with the whole world, she feels her alienation in relation not only to the "ungrateful crowd", but also to the whole universe. Belinsky wrote that in L.’s poems “there is no hope, they strike the reader’s soul with joylessness, disbelief in life and human feelings, with a thirst for life and an excess of feelings ... Nowhere is Pushkin’s revelry at the feast of life; but everywhere questions that darken the soul, chill the heart” (IV, 503). "Lermontov's man" thinks of himself as an exceptional, chosen nature, he is psychologically tense and keenly experiencing the uniqueness, the uniqueness of his own. personality. The universality of alienation, "proud enmity" with "heaven" and with the whole world dooms him to super-dimensional suffering and loneliness, throws the tragic. a reflection on his spiritual quest and destiny. Uncompromisingly rejecting the existent, L. longs for the absolute resolution of the contradictions of being, the transformation of imperfect human nature (see the verse "Fragment" - "Afraid to hope for life"). He cannot be satisfied by earthly passions, which pass and go out, love "for a while", feelings "for a period". But for all the ruthlessness of his reflection, the bleak results of his own. Lermont experience. the hero is ready to believe that his "impossible desires" will still be fulfilled ("If only in the humility of ignorance"), he demands eternal love and immortal existence. Striving for something else better world and the thirst for its anticipation here on earth is one of the defining features of L.'s romanticism (see Ethical ideal). Romantic. L.'s maximalism does not allow him to get away from hostile reality, to forget about it, to seek salvation in the sphere of abstract ideal constructions. Life that does not meet his high requirements is “an empty and stupid joke”, it seems senseless to the poet, and the only worthy goal of earthly existence is the duel of the chosen hero with the titanic. hostile force, heroic confrontation, regardless of the outcome of the struggle. “The primacy of the will” (V. Asmus), a dream of a feat that requires the utmost tension of spiritual and morals. forces (see "I was born so that the whole world would be a spectator / Of triumph or my death"; see. Action and feat in Art. Motives), characteristic of the romantic. L.'s worldview, bring him closer to the tradition coming from the Decembrist poets, and distinguish him among the generation of Russian. intelligentsia in the 1930s If the mindset of a significant part of it is characterized by the desire of Ch. arr. to the theoretical resolution of the fundamental problems of being - social, philosophical, moral, then in the eyes of L. action - a necessary form of existence of ideas. Spiritual power will exclude. romantic personality determines thereby the infinity of its will, readiness for "great" accomplishments. All this is due to the features of Lermont. romanticism as a creative method, defining for him the principles of art. reflections, aesthetic world transformations. In contrast to the realist writers, L. the Romantic does not seek to directly reveal the contradictions of the epoch. Reality appears to him indirectly - in a subjectively transformed form. “He takes only those contradictions in which, with particular force, but also one-sidedness, the protest of the individual is concentrated against the oppression and ugliness of the surrounding life. The contradictions of social reality take on an abstract character in him; it is the absolute opposite of isolated abstract entities: good and evil, innocence and vice, beauty and ugliness. Mikhailova E. (2), p. 113-14]. Subjectively, such a creative attitude is perceived by the writer as the creation of an artist. world, independent of reality, fundamentally different from it (“In my mind I created a different world / And images of other existence” (“Russian Melody”), is a feature characteristic of romantic aesthetics in general. Indeed, its romantic characters are heroes , villains, criminals, rebels, demonic creatures, angelic pure souls- "do not resemble the creatures of the earth." Often they are written without regard for everyday authenticity, social, national-historical. or even psychological. specificity. Accordingly, the action of his romantic. prod. develops against the background of the phenomena of reality, denoting societies. evil as universal (prison, inquisition, masquerade, cruel serf life), and is transferred to an environment far from Everyday life modern society, perhaps less like it - to Russia in the era of Grozny or Pugachev, to Spain, to the Caucasus, or even, as in "The Demon", to the boundless cosmic. open spaces. Romantic. personality appears in the minds of the early L. as absolutely valuable and free, not conditioned by socio-historical. concreteness and life circumstances, beyond the control of human laws and accepted morals. norms. Unity it recognizes its own law by law. will. Of the diverse phenomena of reality, L. selects and artistically transforms only those that are able to embody the exclusivity and rebellious spirit of the hero, the height or strength of his aspirations. This approach led to the sparseness of the social and cultural-historical. atmosphere in the work of L., especially in comparison with Pushkin (even romantic. pores). The point here is not only in the feeling of unconditional superiority Lermont. hero over the "crowd", but also in the fact that any reality in itself, in L.'s view, does not contain anything reasonable, it is hostile to law, truth, justice [ Mikhailova(2), p. 106-07]. Hence - the lack of an objective justification for the actions of the hero, the deliberate abstractness and ambiguity in the depiction of his fate, the abundance of secrets, omissions, sudden turns in the development of the plot. Like Byron, L. is characterized by the "autocracy" of the romantic. a hero expressing absolute truth and the only possible (from the author's point of view) life position. Related to this is the monologue. the structure of his romantic works: lyrics, poems, dramas, the novel "Vadim" (see Author. Narrator. Hero). The construction of his early poems is noteworthy. "In the center of the work, most often there is one hero, in a pathetic monologue (or improperly direct speech) stating the story of his life, leading a story with a violation of the chronological sequence, with omissions, with the inclusion of spectacular episodes" [ Focht(2), p. 77-78]. Aesthetic the autocracy of the hero entails in L. (as in Byron) the hyperbolic nature of his image (grandness of deeds, sublimity of thoughts, extreme emotional states, catastrophic clash of opposing passions, the excessiveness of their external manifestation). This also determines other features of the romantic. style L .: melodramatic plot situations, "pathetic contrasts", plot-compositional and stylistic, emphasized expressiveness of poetic. speech, etc. (see Antithesis, Plot, Stylistics). The second half of the work of L. (1835-41) - the time of the romantic crisis. worldview. The poet feels more and more sharply the insolubility of his inner. contradictions, limitations and vulnerability of the position of rebellious individualism, increasingly striving to correlate their ideals with reality. At the heart of his new position is "consciousness of the power of reality ... and at the same time disagreement with it, its denial" [ Eichenbaum(10), p. 94], the Romanticism of late L. loses its actively protesting character, loses its former strong-willed pressure, expansion, and becomes more and more “defensive”, even “passive”. The desire to take revenge on people, the crowd, the entire world order, which does not meet the ideal ideas of the poet, disappears. It's not about being heroic anymore. "triumph or death" of the rebel-individualist in the face of reality: disastrous for Lermont. the hero turns out to be not only a struggle with the world, not only a proud opposition to it, but also any form of contact, contact with it - whether it be the Demon's attempt to "reconcile with the sky" or Mtsyri's flight to his native village. This theme sounds especially hopeless and tragic in the lyrics of L. (“Death of a Poet”, “Three Palm Trees”, “Leaf”, “Sea Princess”, “Cliff”, “Prophet”). The rejection of the principles of the immediate is largely connected with the inner evolution of the poet. self-expression, from diary frankness (see Diary) and confession of early creativity, the search for new artists. forms. Mature L. is characterized by a deepening of subtext, a tendency to irony, to hidden forms of lyrical poetry. expressions are symbolic. landscapes (see. Symbol), ballads, "role-playing" lyrics. The declaration of this accomplished transition to new positions m. b. named verse. “From the album of S. N. Karamzina” (“I also loved in the past years”). At the same time, L.’s work reveals a tendency towards an objective reproduction of reality, a concrete image of the social environment, everyday life, and the circumstances of a person’s life (“Sashka”, “Princess Ligovskaya”, “Tambov Treasurer”, “Hero of Our Time”, “Caucasian”) . Remaining largely romantic in direction and artistic. method, it clearly evolves towards realism (see Prose, Style). The changes that have taken place in it can be summarized as follows: “...Firstly, moral control is established over individualistic heroes; secondly, the heroes who are the bearers of the people's consciousness acquire significance and receive the right to vote; thirdly, the image of the hero and reality becomes more objective, ultimately more realistic" [ Maksimov(2), p. 58]. Of paramount importance for L. acquire such spiritual morals. values, like a thirst for unity with people, love for the motherland and people (“Borodino”, “Motherland”, “Song about ... the merchant Kalashnikov”; see Socio-historical problems in the work of Lermontov). At the same time, people from the people are often endowed with features close to lyrical hero late L.: severe restraint, courage, will, a clear consciousness of duty, the ability to suffer greatly and deeply (“Neighbor”, “Neighbor”, “Testament”, “Valerik”). Accordingly, the tragedy of the hero-chosen one loses its aura of exclusivity, more and more comprehended as a typical fate. thinking person in modern, full of contrasts Russia (cf. “Farewell, unwashed Russia” and “Motherland”, “Duma” and “In Memory of A. I. Odoevsky”). All this leads the poet to the need to look sharply into life, into the characters of people, to comprehend the laws of reality. The changes that have taken place have affected L.'s work as a whole, all his genres and genres - lyrics, poems, dramaturgy, prose - and are most fully expressed in "A Hero of Our Time". If romantic. L.'s method in 1837-41 was improved, outliving its early forms, and in many genres reached completion (for example, in poems), then the features are realistic. styles were still being formed, and this formation remained unfinished (it is noteworthy in this sense that L. anticipated a number of artistic principles of the natural school). These processes, contradictory combined and influencing each other, took place at a time when romanticism was still a living phenomenon, and realism in Russian. literature was already gaining strength, mastering new spheres of reality (including those that were predominantly occupied by romantics) and showed interest in the deep contradictions of human nature. Naturally, the features of realism in the work of L. the prose writer were formed primarily in connection with the artist. comprehension of the personality of modern. man, the hero of time, endowed, however, with a number of psychol. characteristics of romanticism. The question of the relationship between romanticism and realism in the mature work of L. is the subject of controversy and ongoing controversy. According to K. Grigoryan, it remains entirely romantic, including the "Hero ...". According to another TC. (S. Durylin, V. Manuilov), creative. the path of the poet m. b. characterized by the formula "from romanticism to realism", and his mature work marks the consistent and complete assertion of realism. However, the majority of Lermontov scholars (L. Ginzburg, D. Maksimov, E. Mikhailova, U. Focht, and others) speak of the transitional nature of the work. 1835-41, about the coexistence and interaction of various artists in them. trends, realistic. and romantic. started. According to A. Zhuravleva, we are dealing here with a "two-part" ideological and artistic. a system representing a combination of elements of "developed romanticism and early realism into some organic unity" [ Zhuravleva(3), p. eighteen]. The dispute about the direction of evolution of creativity L. and his relationship to romanticism and realism has become particularly acute in connection with the consideration of the artist. method "Hero of Our Time" (see Lermontov). As a result of research and discussions in the 1960s and 70s. the duality of its structure, associated with both romanticism and realism, was revealed. principles of depicting life. Attempts to explain and terminologically define this duality have revealed, however, beings. differences in the understanding of the artist. nature lermont. novel. According to one so-called. (Foht, Manuilov, D. Blagoy, A. Titov and others), "Hero ..." - realistic. at its core, the product, although not devoid of elements of romanticism, is still associated with its traditions. According to Manuilov, without the novel L. - the first Russian. socio-psychol. novel - it is impossible to understand the formation of Russian. prose in general; but realistic. novel L. absorbed the experience of Europe. romanticism: the subject of his art. research - romantic. hero, romantic characters and situations. Dr. researchers put forward the idea of ​​a synthesis of romanticism and realism, see in the novel "a dialectical synthesis of voluntarism and determinism, a romantic and realistic concept of character" [ Markovich(2), p. 55]. B. Udodov considers this synthesis to be so organic and “equal”, different from both romanticism and realism as a qualitatively new and independent whole, that this, in his opinion, gives reason to speak in relation to the “Hero ...” about “completely original Lermontov's method, which typologically can be conditionally designated as romantic-realistic" [ Udodov(3), p. 461, 469]. When considering this complex issue, one should obviously proceed primarily from the very fact of movement, the evolution of L.'s creativity, from the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe "Hero ..." as a product worth on the edge romanticism and realism. In Lermont. The novel is reworking and transforming the romantic. artistic principles into realistic ones, but this process is not completed, not completed. The most important structural features, genetically associated with romanticism (the closeness of the hero and the author, the "supreme power" of the central character in the plot, fragmentation, etc.), are changed into artistic. The system of the novel has its functions and is more or less realistic. completion and interpretation. So, the heightened attention to the internal, characteristic of romanticism. the world of man is qualitatively different in the novel from the principles of the romantic. psychologism with its focus on self-expression - the character of Pechorin appears as an object of the author's artist. study and criticism. analysis. Roman L. adjoins the tradition of “analyticalism” developing in the bosom of romanticism. prose”, which found the most vivid embodiment in the French. literature (“Adolf” by B. Constant, “Confession of the son of the century” by A. Musset, etc.). But the Hero . character, as well as the breadth of the formulation of social problems, which is typical of the genre of social psychology. novel. On the other hand, a detailed analysis of the human soul and the fate of the hero in his complex, tragic. relations with society, bringing together the "Hero ..." with realistic. artistic method, L. has its limits. Not being a double (alter ego) of the author, Pechorin is still close to him in many ways. As noted by Belinsky, L. was unable to move away from his hero (IV, 267). The character of Pechorin, his bitter fate, his spiritual drama appear in the novel as a sign of the times, they are typical, natural for the best people 1830s At the same time, they cannot be fully explained by society. situation and history. circumstances of the era: in the nature of Pechorin there is a lot of mysterious, rationally inexplicable, psychologically similar to the heroes of the romantic. works. Romantic. and realistic. the beginnings are in it, thus, in a complex interaction, in a state of mobile, dynamic. balance. On the whole, the problem of romanticism and realism in The Hero ... and in L.'s work in general requires further study.

Lit.: Belinsky, v. 4; Ginzburg(1); Eichenbaum(7); Vinogradov V.V.; Durylin(5); Sokolov(3); Mikhailova E. (2); Manuilov(8); Manuilov(11); Grigoryan(1); Grigoryan(3); Maksimov(2); Arkhipov; Good(2); Zhuravleva(3); Markovich(2); Toybin(2); Umanskaya(1); Udodov(2); Wooseok(4); Focht(2); Mann(2); Kupreyanov E. N., Makogonenko G.P., Nat. originality of Russian literature, L., 1976; Bibliography of literature about M. Yu. L. (1917-1977) (compiled by O. V. Miller), L., 1980, p. 512.

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Ideological and artistic movement in European and American culture of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. Born as a reaction to the rationalism and mechanism of the aesthetics of classicism and the philosophy of the Enlightenment, established in the era of the revolutionary breakdown of feudal society, the former, seemingly unshakable world order, romanticism (both as a special kind of worldview and as an artistic direction) has become one of the most complex and internally contradictory phenomena. in cultural history.

Disappointment in the ideals of the Enlightenment, in the results of the Great French Revolution, the denial of the utilitarianism of modern reality, the principles of bourgeois practicality, the victim of which was human individuality, a pessimistic view of the prospects for social development, the mindset of "world sorrow" were combined in romanticism with the desire for harmony in the world order, the spiritual integrity of the individual , with an inclination towards the "infinite", with the search for new, absolute and unconditional ideals.

The sharp discord between ideals and oppressive reality evoked in the minds of many romantics a painfully fatalistic or indignant feeling of two worlds, a bitter mockery of the discrepancy between dreams and reality, elevated in literature and art to the principle of "romantic irony". A kind of self-defense against the growing leveling of the personality was the deepest interest inherent in romanticism in the human personality, understood by romantics as a unity of individual external characteristic and unique inner content. Penetrating into the depths of a person's spiritual life, the literature and art of romanticism simultaneously transferred this acute feeling of the characteristic, original, unique to the destinies of nations and peoples, to historical reality itself.

The enormous social changes that took place before the eyes of the romantics made the progressive course of history visually visible. In its best works, romanticism rises to the creation of symbolic and at the same time vital, associated with modern history images. But the images of the past, drawn from mythology, ancient and medieval history, were embodied by many romantics as a reflection of the real conflicts of our time.

Romanticism became the first artistic trend in which the awareness of the creative person as the subject of artistic activity was clearly manifested. Romantics openly proclaimed the triumph of individual taste, complete freedom of creativity. Giving decisive importance to the creative act itself, destroying the obstacles that hindered the freedom of the artist, they boldly equated the high and the low, the tragic and the comic, the ordinary and the unusual.

Romanticism captured all spheres of spiritual culture: literature, music, theater, philosophy, aesthetics, philology and other humanities, plastic arts.

Romanticism had almost no state forms its expression (therefore, it did not significantly affect architecture, influencing mainly garden and park architecture, small-scale architecture and the direction of the so-called pseudo-Gothic). Being not so much a style as a social art movement, romanticism opened the way further development art in the 19th century, which took place not in the form of comprehensive styles, but in the form of separate trends and trends. Also, for the first time in romanticism, the language of artistic forms was not completely rethought: to a certain extent, the stylistic foundations of classicism were preserved, significantly modified and rethought in individual countries (for example, in France). At the same time, within the framework of a single stylistic direction, the individual style of the artist received greater freedom of development.

Developing in many countries, romanticism everywhere acquired a bright national identity, due to its own historical conditions and national traditions. The first signs of romanticism appeared almost simultaneously in different countries. At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. the features of romanticism are already inherent in varying degrees: in Great Britain - in the paintings and graphic works of the Swiss J. G. Fuseli, in which a gloomy, sophisticated grotesque breaks through the classicist clarity of images, and in the work of the poet and artist W. Blake, imbued with mystical visionary; in Spain - to the late works of F. Goya, full of unbridled fantasy and tragic pathos, passionate protest against national humiliation; in France - to the heroically excited portraits of J. L. David created in the revolutionary years, early intense dramatic compositions and portraits of A. Zh. Gro, imbued with the dreamy, somewhat exalted lyricism of the works of P. P. Prudhon, as well as the contradictory combination of romantic tendencies with the academic techniques of the works of F. Gerard.

The most consistent school of romanticism developed in France during the Restoration and the July Monarchy in a stubborn struggle against the dogmatism and abstract rationalism of late academic classicism. While expressing their protest against oppression and reaction, many representatives of French Romanticism were directly or indirectly associated with the social movements of the first half of the 19th century. and often rose to genuine revolutionism, which determined the effective, journalistic nature of romanticism in France. French artists are reforming pictorial and expressive means: they dynamize the composition, combining forms with rapid movement, use bright saturated colors based on contrasts of light and shadow, warm and cold tones, resort to a sparkling and light, often generalized manner of painting.

In the work of the founder of the romantic school, T. Gericault, who still retained a gravitation towards generalized heroic classic images, for the first time in French art, a protest was expressed against the surrounding reality and a desire to respond to the exceptional events of our time, which in his works embody the tragic fate of modern France. In the 1820s E. Delacroix became the recognized head of the romantic school. Feeling of belonging to the great historical events, changing the face of the world, the appeal to climactic, dramatically sharp topics gave rise to pathos and dramatic intensity of it the best works. In the portrait, the main thing for the romantics was the identification of vivid characters, the tension of spiritual life, the fleeting movement of human feelings; in the landscape - admiration for the power of nature, inspired by the elements of the universe.

For the graphics of French romanticism, the creation of new, mass forms in lithography and book woodcuts (N. T. Charlet, A. Deveria, J. Gigoux, later Granville, G. Dore) is indicative. Romantic tendencies are also inherent in the work of the largest graphic artist O. Daumier, but they manifested themselves especially strongly in his painting. The masters of romantic sculpture (P. J. David d'Angers, A. L. Bari, F. Ryud) moved from strictly tectonic compositions to a free interpretation of forms, from the impassivity and calm grandeur of classic plasticity to a violent movement.

In the works of many French romantics, the conservative tendencies of romanticism also appeared (idealization, individualism of perception, turning into tragic hopelessness, an apology for the Middle Ages, etc.), which led to religious affectation and open glorification of the monarchy (E. Deveria, A. Schaeffer, etc.) . Separate formal principles of romanticism were also widely used by representatives of official art, who eclectically combined them with the methods of academicism (the melodramatic historical paintings of P. Delaroche, the superficially spectacular ceremonial and battle works of O. Vernet, E. Meissonier, and others).

The historical fate of romanticism in France was complex and ambiguous. In the late works of its major representatives, realistic tendencies were clearly manifested, partly already embedded in the very romantic concept of the specificity of the real. On the other hand, the early work of representatives of realism in French art - C. Corot, the masters of the Barbizon school, G. Courbet, J. F. Millet, E. Manet, was captured by romantic trends to a different extent. Mysticism and complex allegorism, sometimes inherent in romanticism, found continuity in symbolism (G. Moreau and others); some character traits the aesthetics of romanticism reappeared in the art of "modern" and post-impressionism.

Even more complex and controversial was the development of romanticism in Germany and Austria. Early German romanticism, which is characterized by close attention to everything sharply individual, melancholy-contemplative tone of the figurative-emotional structure, mystical-pantheistic mood, is mainly associated with searches in the field of portrait and allegorical compositions (F. O. Rute), as well as landscape (K (D. Friedrich, J. A. Koch).

Religious-patriarchal ideas, the desire to revive the religious spirit and stylistic features of Italian and German painting of the 15th century. nourished the creativity of the Nazarves (F. Overbeck, J. Schnorr von Karolsfeld, P. Cornelius, and others), whose position became especially conservative by the middle of the 19th century. For the artists of the Düsseldorf school, to a certain extent close to romanticism, they were characterized, in addition to singing the medieval idyll in the spirit of modern romantic poetry, sentimentality and plot entertaining. A kind of fusion of the principles of German romanticism, often prone to poetizing ordinary and specifically "burgher" realism, was the work of representatives of the Biedermeier (F. Waldmüller, I. P. Hasenklewer, F. Kruger), as well as K. Blechen.

From the 2nd third of the 19th century. the line of German romanticism continued, on the one hand, in the pompous salon-academic painting of W. Kaulbach and K. Piloty, and on the other hand, in the epic and allegorical works of L. Richter and genre-narrative, chamber-sounding works of K. Spitzweg and M. von Schwind. Romantic aesthetics largely determined the formation of the work of A. von Menzel, later the largest representative of German realism in the 19th century. Just as in France, late German romanticism (to a greater extent than French, which absorbed the features of naturalism, and then "modern") by the end of the 19th century. joined with symbolism (H. Thoma, F. von Stuck and M. Klinger, Swiss A. Böcklin).

in Great Britain in the first half of the 19th century. some proximity to French romanticism and at the same time originality, a pronounced realistic trend marked the landscapes of J. Constable and R. Bonington, romantic fiction and the search for fresh means of expression- landscapes by W. Turner. Religious and mystical aspirations, attachment to the culture of the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance, as well as hopes for the revival of handicraft work, distinguished the late Romantic Pre-Raphaelite movement (D. G. Rossetti, J. E. Milles, X. Hunt, E. Burne-Jones, etc.) .

in the United States throughout the 19th century. the romantic direction was represented mainly by the landscape (T. Kohl, J. Inness, A. P. Ryder). The romantic landscape also developed in other countries, but the main content of romanticism in those countries of Europe where national self-consciousness was awakening was an interest in the local cultural and artistic heritage, themes of folk life, national history and the struggle for liberation. Such is the work of G. Wappers, L. Galle, X. Leys and A. Wirtz in Belgium, F. Ayes, D. and J. Induno, J. Carnevali and D. Morelli in Italy, D. A. Siqueira in Portugal, representatives costumbrism in Latin America, J. Manes and J. Navratil in the Czech Republic, M. Barabash and V. Madaras in Hungary, A. O. Orlovsky, P. Michalovsky, X. Rodakovsky and the late romantic J. Matejko in Poland.

The national romantic movement in the Slavic countries, Scandinavia, and the Baltic States contributed to the formation and strengthening of local art schools.

In Russia, romanticism manifested itself to varying degrees in the work of many masters - in the painting and graphics of A. 0. Orlovsky, who moved to St. Petersburg, in the portraits of O. A. Kiprensky, and, to some extent, V. A. Tropinin. Romanticism had a significant influence on the formation of the Russian landscape (the work of Sylv. F. Shchedrin, M. K. Vorobyov, M. I. Lebedev; the works of the young I. K. Aivazovsky). Features of romanticism were contradictory combined with classicism in the works of K. P. Bryullov, F. A. Bruni, F. P., Tolstoy: at the same time, Bryullov’s portraits give one of the most vivid expressions of the principles of romanticism in Russian art. To a certain extent, romanticism affected the painting of P. A. Fedotov and A. A. Ivanov. Germany is one of the first countries in the fine arts of which romanticism has developed. The struggle for spiritual emancipation, for the liberation of the individual, the disclosure of the inner world and appearance of the artist underlie early German romanticism, which contrasted vivid emotionality and a keen interest in the purely personal, individual, abstract rationalistic ideals of classicism. Portrait and landscape primarily respond to new trends in art.