International trade is carried out in two directions. One of them is the export from the country of national goods, products and services produced in it. This direction of trade is called export. To export means to export for sale to other countries. Exported goods are national goods exported to other countries for sale in the markets of these countries.
Export- export from the country of national goods for the purpose of sale in other countries.
The opposite direction of trade is the import into the country of foreign goods, products and services brought from other countries. It is called an import. To import means to bring in for sale from other countries. Imported goods are foreign goods brought in for sale in the national market.
Import- importation into the country of foreign goods for the purpose of sale on the national market.
Often a country exports more than it imports. Sometimes, on the contrary: import prevails over export. Their values are determined by the sum of the values of all exported and imported goods. To denote the difference between these values, a special term is used - “foreign trade balance”.
Foreign trade balance- the difference between the cost of exported and imported goods.
If a country exports more than it imports, then it has a positive, or active, balance. If, on the contrary, imports are greater than exports, then the balance is negative, or passive.
No country in the world can do without imports. Its structure shows in the production of which goods the country has neither absolute nor relative advantages over others. At the same time, the structure of exports can be used to judge the presence of such advantages in the production of goods.
The structure of exports and imports serves as a kind of litmus test economic development countries, determining their place in the international division of labor.
The exports of developed countries are dominated by industrial products, especially engineering products. The products exported by them are distinguished by science intensity and technological complexity. At the same time, the imports of these countries are mainly oil, natural gas, raw materials for industry. These countries also import some types of finished products, the production of which they prefer not to carry out because of the harm done to the environment: for example, washing powders, paints, pesticides (toxic chemicals), medicines.
Raw materials and foodstuffs play a major role in the exports of developing countries. Often, countries with a backward agricultural economy export only one or two goods. In this case, exports (like the national economy) are monocultural. On the contrary, in the imports of developing countries - machinery, equipment, sophisticated household appliances, high-quality clothing, shoes, food.
Until recently, Argentina specialized in the production and export of only two commodities - meat and grain. Everything else was imported from other countries. As a result, Argentina has become one of the largest debtors to the world community - about 170 billion dollars. The world's largest debtors are Poland (external debt in 1998 was about 30% of the country's GDP), Russia (external debt in the same year was 70% of the country's GDP). For comparison: Russia's external debt on the same date was 5% of GDP.
The structure of international trade does not stand still. It undergoes the same changes as in the entire economy. The main one is accelerated growth trade in industrial goods, primarily goods of the manufacturing industries: machines, machine tools, equipment. At the same time, the share of natural raw materials is decreasing due to its replacement with artificial materials, the use of secondary raw materials, non-waste technologies, and recycling.
An example of the transformation of trade relations is Japan. In a short time it has grown from a feudal to a modern industrial state.
Previously, its exports were represented by labor-intensive products (mainly textiles). Then - material-intensive products (mainly metal). At present, the export structure consists almost entirely of high-tech manufacturing products (in particular, marine vessels, cars, robots, telecommunications equipment, household electrical appliances). AT last years export of goods supplemented by jKcnopTOM capital. In terms of foreign investment, Japanese companies ranked second after the United States. Eight Japanese companies are among the fifty largest investors in the world (for example, Hitachi, Matsushita, Toyota, Sony, Nisso Ivan).
Exports are huge: 1/10 of its world value. Only the US and Germany export more.
International trade plays an important role in the economic development of any country, supplementing its production capabilities. Many countries owe their prosperity to this trade. Countries with active international trade have always had the highest per capita income. It is no coincidence that most of them are maritime powers: for example, the Netherlands, Great Britain, and the USA. !) That trade contributed to the economic progress of Japan and Germany. It helped South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan become "economic tigers".
List of exporting countries(2010)
World 14,920,000
European Union 1,952,000
1 PRC 1,506,000
2 Germany 1,337,000
3 US 1,289,000
4 Japan 765 200
5 France 517 300
6 Netherlands 485 900
7 Republic of Korea 464,300
8 Italy 448 400
9 UK 410 300
10 Russia 400 100
Main export items of Russia: Fuel and energy products, products of the chemical industry, machinery and equipment, food products and raw materials for their production, timber and pulp and paper products.
http://www.rusimpex.ru/Content/News/look_news.php3?urlext=2013_05_12.txt
Export restriction- these are restrictions on the export (export) of goods / goods (a certain number of them or a total ban on exports) to a certain country ( certain countries) by the government.
Such restrictions may be imposed in the following cases:
Shortage of goods in the domestic market
The need for anti-dumping measures to protect the domestic market
government boycott of the country
The need to limit the spread of military or dual technologies.
International trade grows and develops in connection with the profitability and expediency of the international division of labor, the concentration of the production of certain products in individual countries with the aim of their subsequent sale on the world market and thereby satisfying the needs of other countries that create demand for this product.
If earlier the main prerequisite for international trade was the uneven distribution of resources between different countries, today differences in the efficiency of the use of resources and the technologies used are becoming increasingly important.
Development of international trade:
Allows to overcome the limitations of the national resource base;
Expands the capacity of the domestic market and establishes links between the national market and the world market;
Provides additional income due to the difference between national and international production costs;
Expands the production possibilities of countries (there is a shift in the production possibilities curve to the right);
It leads to a deepening of the specialization of production and, on this basis, to an increase in the efficiency of the use of resources and an increase in the volume of production.
World trade is formed on the basis of foreign trade carried out by different countries. The term "foreign trade" refers to trade with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.
The main differences between foreign trade and domestic:
Goods and services are less mobile globally than domestically;
When calculating, each country uses its own national currency, hence the need to compare different currencies;
Foreign trade is subject to more state control than internal;
More buyers and more competitors.
The state of the country's foreign trade, the level of its development depend, first of all, on the competitiveness of the goods produced, the level of which is influenced by:
Provision of the country with resources (factors of production), including such as information, technology;
Capacity and requirements of the domestic market for product quality;
The level of development of links between export industries and related industries and industries;
The strategy of firms, their organizational structure, the degree of development of competition in the domestic market.
World trade is usually characterized in terms of its volume, growth rate, geographical (distribution of commodity flows between individual countries, regions) and commodity (by type of product) structure.
World trade in the modern world is developing rapidly. So, for the period 1950-1995. world trade turnover increased more than 14 times and reached 5 trillion. Doll.
The stable, sustainable growth of international trade is influenced by:
Deepening the international division of labor and the internationalization of production;
scientific and technological revolution, contributing to the creation of new sectors of the economy and accelerating the reconstruction of old ones;
Active activity of transnational companies in the world market;
Liberalization of international trade;
Development of trade and economic integration processes, elimination of intercountry barriers, formation of free trade zones, etc.
A feature of modern world trade in terms of its geography is the increase in mutual trade between developed countries - most of the world trade is trade between the United States, Western Europe and Japan. The share of the Asia-Pacific region in the world trade turnover is growing at a high rate. Among individual countries, the United States accounts for the largest trade turnover (28% of world trade), followed by Germany, Japan, France, and Great Britain.
The structure of world trade is dominated by finished products (70%), and only 30% is accounted for by raw materials and foodstuffs. (For comparison: in the first half of the 20th century, more than 60% of trade was accounted for by food, raw materials and fuel.) The world exchange of communications, electronic equipment, computers, components, assemblies and parts is growing at the fastest pace.
Along with goods, world trade includes the exchange of services of transport, communications, tourism, construction, insurance, etc. It should be noted the unprecedented growth of trade in services. The exchange of services in the world market is growing twice as fast as the exchange of goods.
Human society is inconceivable without international or global trade. It is historically the first form different countries. In this regard, international trade is trading settlements and fairs, the activities of which have been known since time immemorial.
She plays an equally important role today. Modern definition states that international trade is a special type of commodity-money relations based on the export of raw materials or finished products.
It is based on the division of labor. Simply put, countries produce a certain commodity, which they, entering into cooperation, exchange. Therefore, we can safely say that at present international trade is the interchange of national economies of the states of the world in goods and services.
Factors driving progress:
Socio-geographical: difference in topographic position, number and mental characteristics of the population;
Natural and climatic: differences in the provision of water and forest resources, as well as minerals.
Advances in technology and change also play an important role. economic indicators. All this contributes to strong relations between national economies.
Production Grows Slower Than Data Confirms According to her research, for every 10% increase in output, there is a 16% increase in world trade.
The organization of international trade is impossible without such a thing as "foreign trade". It is divided into: trade finished products, equipment, raw materials and services.
In a narrow sense, international trade is the total turnover of developed countries, developing countries, commodity circulation of countries of any continent or region.
As practice shows, the country's interest in world trade is due to the following advantages:
Introduction to world achievements;
Rational use of available resources;
The ability to rebuild the structure of the economy as soon as possible;
Meeting the needs of the population.
Exist different kinds international trade:
Trade in goods and services;
Exchange trading;
Trade fairs;
Auctions;
Counter trade;
Offset trading.
If everything is very clear, then the remaining points make you think, so for a complete understanding of the picture, let's consider this issue in more detail.
So, a trading exchange is an association of sellers, intermediaries and buyers. Such alliances contribute to the improvement of trade, the acceleration of trade and free pricing.
Fairs are auctions held periodically at a designated place. They are regional, international and local. During this period of time, exhibitions-fairs were widely used, where you can order the goods you like.
Auctions are a form of selling goods that were previously put up for review. Such transactions take place at the appointed time in strict certain place. Distinctive feature auctions - limited liability for the quality of the goods.
Countertrade takes place in several directions: barter and counterpurchase.
Barter is an agreed upon cost. Such transactions take place without the participation of funds in them.
The last type of international trade is an offset transaction, which differs from barter in that it involves not one, but several goods.
Thus, world trade is carried out in several ways, which are constantly developing and improving.
World trade is the most common form of international relations. Of considerable interest is the study of both the patterns of development of international trade and theories that substantiate the principles of optimal participation of national economies in international trade.
The main features of world trade
International (world) trade is the process of buying and selling goods and services between buyers, sellers and intermediaries in different countries. Quite often, international trade refers only to trade in goods.
International trade includes the export and import of goods, the sum of which is called the turnover, and the ratio between them is the trade balance. The UN statistical handbooks provide data on the volume and dynamics of world trade as the sum of the value of exports of all countries of the world.
The main stages in the development of world trade and its dynamics in modern conditions
Originating in ancient times, world trade reaches a significant scale and acquires the character of stable international commodity-money relations at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. A powerful impetus to this process was the creation in a number of countries (England, Holland, etc.) of machine production, oriented not only to the domestic, but also to the foreign market. To late XIX- the beginning of the XX century. the world market has developed. In the first half of the XX century. World trade has gone through a deep crisis. It began during the First World War and led to a long-term disruption of world trade, which lasted until the end of the Second World War, which shook the entire structure of international economic relations to its foundations. A characteristic feature of the post-war period was a noticeable acceleration in the pace of development of world trade, which reached the highest level in the entire history of human society.
Thus, the average annual growth rate of world exports of goods was: in the 50s. - 6%; 60s - 8.2; 70-80s -9.0 and in 90-97. - 6% (the average annual GDP growth rate for this period was 1.5%). Accordingly, the volume of world trade also increased. Thus, in 1970 it amounted to $0.3 trillion; in 1980 - 1.9; in 1997 - 5.4 trillion dollars (taking into account the export of services - 6.4 trillion dollars).
The unprecedented high rates of post-war growth in world trade are primarily due to the higher rates of economic development during this period. In addition, it is accompanied by an increasing division of labor in the world, which stimulates international trade. Finally, a significant role in accelerating the growth of world trade was played by the active inclusion in it of new groups of countries that were previously economically backward. According to available forecasts, high growth rates of world trade will continue in the future: by 2003, the volume of world trade will increase by 50% and exceed $7 trillion.
Structure and main commodity flows of world trade. The role of trade in services in international exchange
The commodity structure of world trade is changing primarily under the influence of scientific and technological revolution and the deepening of the international division of labor. At present, manufacturing products are of the greatest importance in world trade; it accounts for more than 3/4 of world trade. The share of such types of these products as machinery, equipment and vehicles, and chemical products is growing especially rapidly. The share of food, raw materials and mineral fuels is approximately 1/5 (Table 34.1).
In the second half of the twentieth century. along with rapid growth world trade in goods at a faster pace, the international exchange of services is expanding. In addition to traditional types of services (transport, financial and credit, tourism, etc.), an increasing place in international exchange is occupied by new types of services that develop under the influence of scientific and technological revolution (information and computing, licensing, consulting, etc.).
Table 34.1. Commodity structure of world exports by main groups of goods, %
The geographical distribution of world trade is characterized by the predominance of countries with developed market economies, industrialized countries. So, in the late 90s. they account for about 75% of world merchandise exports.
Developed countries trade the most with each other. The trade of developing countries is also focused mainly on the markets of developed countries, and their share in world exports is about 15%. The countries with economies in transition account for about 10% of the world export of goods, with the share of Russia decreasing (1.3%), while China, together with Hong Kong, is growing (6.3%). The importance of oil exporting countries in world trade has significantly decreased in recent years. The role of the so-called new industrial countries, especially Asian ones, is becoming more and more noticeable.
Pricing in the global commodity market. International costs and world prices
A characteristic feature of world trade is the presence of a special system of prices - world prices. They are based on international production costs, which gravitate to the average world costs of economic resources for the creation of this type of goods. International production costs are formed under the predominant influence of countries that are the main suppliers of these types of goods to the world market. In addition, a significant impact on the level of world prices is exerted by the ratio of supply and demand for this species goods on the world market.
International trade is characterized by a plurality of prices, i.e. the existence of different prices for the same product. World prices vary depending on the time of year, place, conditions for the sale of goods, features of the contract. In practice, the prices of large, systematic and stable export or import transactions concluded in certain centers of world trade by well-known firms - exporters or importers of the relevant types of goods are taken as world prices. For many commodities (cereals, rubber, cotton, etc.), world prices are set in the course of operations on the world's largest commodity exchanges.
Classical theories of international trade
Classical theories laid the foundations for the analysis of world economic relations. The conclusions contained in these theories have become a kind of starting axioms for further development economic thought in the area under consideration.
A. Smith's theory of absolute advantages
The founder of economic science, Adam Smith, in his book An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776), paid considerable attention to the division of labor based on the specialization of economic activity. At the same time, A. Smith extended the conclusions about the division of labor to the world economic sphere, for the first time theoretically substantiating the principle of absolute advantages (or absolute costs): “The basic rule of every prudent head of the family is not to try to make at home such items, the production of which will cost more than buying them on the side ... What seems reasonable in the conduct of any private family can hardly be unreasonable for the whole kingdom. If any foreign country can supply us with any commodity at a cheaper price than we are able to manufacture it, it is much better to buy it from her with some part of the product of our own industrial labor applied in that area in which we have some advantage" "
" Smith A. Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples. M .. 1962. S. 333.
Thus, the essence of A. Smith's views is that the basis for the development of international trade is the difference in absolute costs. Trade will bring economic benefits if goods are imported from a country where costs are absolutely lower, and those goods are exported whose costs in this country are lower than abroad.
D. Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage
Another classic, David Ricardo, in his book "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation" (1817) convincingly proved that interstate specialization is beneficial not only in cases where a country has an absolute advantage in the production and marketing of a given product compared to with other countries, i.e. it is not necessary that the cost of producing this product be less than the cost of similar products produced abroad. It is quite enough, according to D. Ricardo, for this country to export those goods for which it has a comparative advantage, i.e. that in these commodities the ratio of its expenditures to that of other countries would be more favorable to it than in other commodities.
The theory of comparative advantage is based on a number of assumptions. It comes from the presence of two countries and two goods; production costs only in the form of wages, which, moreover, is the same for all professions; ignoring differences in level wages between countries; no transport costs and free trade. These initial prerequisites were necessary to identify the basic principles for the development of international trade.
Consider the operation of the principle of comparative advantages (costs) in international trade on a specific example.
Example 34.1. Suppose that a piece of cloth of 25 is exchanged for a barrel of wine of 50 liters.
For the production of such a piece of cloth in Portugal, the annual labor of 90 workers is spent, and in England - 100 workers. For the production of a barrel of wine of the specified capacity in Portugal, the labor of 80 workers is spent, and in England - 120 workers. Thus Portugal has an absolute advantage in both commodities, while England does not. Nevertheless, it is beneficial for both countries to exchange goods.
If Portugal refuses to manufacture a piece of cloth, and imports it from England in exchange for a barrel of wine, then she will save the annual labor of her 20 workers.
In the above example, it is assumed that wages in both countries are the same. However, if it is different, then, as later Ricardian economists pointed out, this does not fundamentally change the theory of relative advantage. In our case, if the level of wages in Portugal is, say, twice as low as in England, then Portugalfrom the exchange will still benefit, but not two, but four times less than England, i.e. for the latter, this benefit will no longer be two, but four times greater. This is not difficult to calculate if we conditionally determine the annual wages of winemakers and weavers in Portugal at 1000l. Art., and the wages of the same workers in England - in 2000 f. Art.
The level of relative prices, i.e. the ratio of capital and labor prices in countries more saturated with capital will be less than in countries where there is a shortage of capital and relatively large labor resources. Conversely, the level of relative prices for labor and capital in countries with excess labor resources will be lower than in other countries where they are deficient.
This in turn leads to a difference in relative prices for the same goods, on which national comparative advantages depend. Hence, each country tends to specialize in the production of goods that require more factors with which it is relatively better endowed.
Factor price equalization theorem (Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theorem)
Under the influence of international trade, the relative prices of goods participating in world trade tend to equalize. This also leads to an equalization of the ratio of prices for factors of production used in the creation of these goods in different countries. The nature of this interaction was revealed by the American economist P. Samuelson, who proceeded from the basic postulates of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory. In accordance with the Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theorem, the mechanism for equalizing prices for factors of production is as follows. In the absence of foreign trade, the prices of factors of production (wages and interest rates) will differ in both countries: the price of the excess factor will be relatively lower, and the price of the scarce factor will be relatively higher.
Participation in international trade and the country's specialization in the production of capital-intensive goods lead to the flow of capital into export industries. The demand for a factor of production that is abundant in a given country exceeds the supply of the latter, and its price (interest rate) rises. On the contrary, the demand for labor, which is a scarce factor in a given country, is relatively reduced, which leads to a decrease in its price - wages.
In another country, relatively better endowed with labor resources, specialization in the production of labor-intensive goods leads to a significant movement of labor resources to the corresponding export industries. An increase in the demand for labor leads to an increase in wages. The demand for capital decreases relatively, which causes a decrease in its price - the interest rate.
Leontief's paradox
In accordance with the theory of the ratio of factors of production, relative differences in their endowment determine the structure of foreign trade of individual groups of countries. In countries that are relatively more capital-saturated, capital-intensive goods should predominate in exports and labour-intensive goods in imports. Conversely, in countries that are relatively more labor-saturated, labor-intensive goods will dominate in exports, while capital-intensive goods will dominate in imports.
The factor ratio theory of production has been repeatedly subjected to empirical tests by analyzing specific statistical data in relation to various countries. At the same time, economists sought to find out the existence of a correlation between the ratio of capital- and labor-saturated sectors of the economy of individual countries and the real structure of their exports and imports.
The most famous study of this kind was carried out in 1953 by the famous American economist of Russian origin V. Leontiev. He analyzed the structure of US foreign trade in 1947 and 1951.
The US economy after World War II was characterized by high capital saturation and relatively higher wages compared to other countries. According to the factor-of-production theory, the United States of America should have exported predominantly capital-intensive goods and imported predominantly labor-intensive goods.
V. Leontiev determined the ratio of capital and labor costs required for the production of export products worth 1 million dollars and the volume of imports of the same value. Contrary to expectations, the results of the study showed that US imports were 30% more capital intensive than exports. This result became known as the "Leontief paradox".
There are various explanations of Leontief's paradox in the economic literature. The most persuasive of these is that the United States, earlier than other industrialized countries, has achieved significant advantages in the creation of new high-tech products. Therefore, American exports were dominated by goods with relatively high skilled labor costs, while imports were dominated by goods that required relatively large capital outlays, including various types of commodities.
Leontief's paradox warns against overly straightforward and simplistic use of the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory for practical purposes.
Standard International Trade Model
The currently used standard model of international trade combines various theories that develop the fundamental provisions of classical theories based on the use of the concepts of marginal values and the general equilibrium of the economic system.
The basic concepts of the standard model were developed English economists Francis Edgeworth and Alfred Marshall and Austrian-born American economist Gottfried Haberler.
Fundamentals of the Standard Model
The Standard Model, as well as the classical theories of international trade, proceeds from the fact that the world economy is represented by two countries, each of which produces two goods: xi Y. In addition, the following assumptions are used in the Standard Model: buyers in the process of consumption tend to provide the maximum effect (graphically depicted using indifference curves), and producers seek to extract maximum profit; There is perfect competition in the domestic and world markets, in which the equilibrium price is set at a level corresponding to the marginal cost of production.
Consider, using a specific example, under what conditions the state of equilibrium is ensured in the national economy.
Rice. 34.1. production possibilities frontier
On fig. 34.1 the graph shows the amount of goods Y that can be produced with a given amount of resources. The points above the curve (such as point B) are the output that cannot be achieved with current technologies. The point below the curve (such as point C) shows the amount of output when resources in a given country are used inefficiently. The curve itself reflects the maximum volume of output of goods in a given country. Each point of the curve (E, E 1, etc.) shows a possible combination of production of goods (range), at which this maximum level of production is reached, and the actual production volume is set by producers and consumers (for more details on the production possibilities curve - see 1.3) .
Let's add to the graph in Fig. 34.2 vector of relative prices. reflecting the ratio of the price of goods X (P x) to the price of goods Y (P y).
If, for example, with a constant P y, P x begins to grow, then this means such a change in the angle of the axis of the vector Px / P y at which it will touch the production possibilities curve no longer at point E, but at point E 1, which will mean an increase in production goods and a reduction in the production of good Y. (This shift in the range of products produced is shown in Fig. 34.2 by dotted lines).
Rice. 34.2. Effect of the level of relative prices on output
Now let's add a lot of indifference curves to the graph (for more details about them, see 9.2), then the graph will look like this (Fig. 34.3).
Rice. 34.3. Production, consumption and foreign trade in the standard foreign trade model
The indifference curve reflects the preferences of buyers for goods. The volume of consumption in the economy will be set by the point of contact of one of the indifference curves of the price vector (this is point D in Fig. 34.3). The volume of production was set earlier by point E. Then the country will export the amount of product X that is excessive for it (it is equal to X 1, - X 2) and import the amount of product Y that is missing for it (it is equal to Y 2 -Y 1,).
In accordance with the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, supplemented by Samuelson, there will be an overflow of economic resources (factors of production) into export production, which will lead to an increase in prices for exported goods relative to the rest. Then the price vector Px/py will increase and touch the production possibilities curve at the point E 1 , i.e. will shift in favor of goods (up to X 3). The point of contact of the indifference curve of the new price vector (point D 1 ,) will move up to the right, which means an increase in consumption, however, in a changed assortment due to an increase in imports (Fig. 34.4).
Rice. 34.4. The effect of an increase in the relative price of an exported good
Rx/Py growth leads to two effects: income effect, meaning an increase in welfare due to an increase in export earnings, and substitution effect, which means an increase in the consumption of imported goods compared to exported ones.
The concept of terms of trade
Thus, for the country under consideration, an increase in prices for exported goods in relation to imported goods (P x /Py) will lead to an increase in its welfare, and a decrease in prices, on the contrary, will decrease it. If the prices of imported goods (in our case, Ru) grow, this will mean a decrease in the country's welfare.
This logic underlies the calculation terms of trade, those. an indicator equal to the quotient of dividing the price of the exported good (goods) by the price of the imported good (goods).
Profit from foreign trade
The gains from a country's participation in international trade are very unevenly distributed among different sections of society. The development of trade relations brings tangible benefits to consumers of imported goods, as they get the opportunity to purchase them at lower prices compared to the prices of similar domestically produced goods in the absence of foreign trade. In addition, as can be seen from the graph in Fig. 34.4, the volume of consumption of imported goods also increases in comparison with exported ones.
Random events are events that have little to do with the conditions for the development of the country's economy and which often cannot be influenced by either firms or the government. The most important events of this kind include new inventions, major technological shifts (breakthroughs), sharp changes in resource prices (for example, “oil shock”), significant changes in world financial markets or in exchange rates, surges in global or local demand, policy decisions by governments, wars and other unforeseen circumstances. Random events can change the positions of rival states. They can negate the advantages of old powerful competitors and enhance the export potential of other states.
The role of the government in the formation of national competitive advantage is to exert a significant influence on all the main determinants of the "national diamond", and this influence can be both positive and negative. The government influences the parameters of production factors and demand through monetary, tax, and customs policies. The government itself in most countries is the buyer of goods for the army, transport, communications, education, healthcare and other industries. By carrying out antimonopoly regulation, the government has an impact on maintaining an optimal competitive environment in the leading sectors and branches of the national economy. Finally, the government in many countries promotes the development of related and related industries that interact with the leading export industries.
M. Porter pays special attention to the fact that in many countries companies that successfully operate on world markets cover their activities and determine the level of development of a whole range of industries, the so-called cluster. Reflecting the dynamics of a country's competitive advantages, clusters form and expand, but they can either shrink or disintegrate.
Thus, the theory of M. Porter most fully reflects the most important factors that determine the competitive advantages of a country.
Russia's Foreign Trade: Trends and Development Prospects
The place of foreign trade in the Russian economy
With a population of almost 150 million, with significant energy resources, a fairly highly skilled labor force, and a low labor cost, Russia is a huge market for goods, services, and capital. However, the degree of realization of this potential in the foreign economic sphere is very modest. Russia's share in world exports in 1997 was about 1.3%. The state of Russian foreign trade is still painfully affected by the sharp reduction in economic ties with other former Soviet republics as a result of the collapse of the USSR and the curtailment of trade with the former socialist countries - members of the CMEA, which until the early 90s. were the main consumers of domestic engineering products.
But if the role of Russia in world trade is small, then for her the importance of the foreign economic sphere is very significant. The value of Russia's export quota, calculated on the basis of the purchasing power parity of the ruble against the dollar, is about 10%, dividing between far and near abroad in a ratio of approximately 5:1. Foreign trade remains an important source of investment goods, and also plays an important role in supplying the Russian population with food and various consumer goods.
The structure of Russia's foreign trade
The structure of Russian foreign trade was not typical for a developed country before. At present, these are mainly fuel and energy, simple chemical and petrochemical goods, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, and weapons.
Significant changes have taken place in the commodity structure of Russian imports. The share of investment goods in it decreased, while the share of consumer goods increased, accounting for about 40% of total imports (Table 34.2).
Table 34.2. Structure of Russia's foreign trade in 1998 (% of total)
Competitive advantages and weaknesses of Russia
The prospects for the development of Russia's foreign trade largely depend on the realization of the competitive advantages of its industrial complex. In addition to raw materials, these include: a sufficiently high level of skilled labor with its comparative cheapness, as well as significant amounts of accumulated fixed production assets and funds of universal processing equipment, which makes it possible to reduce the capital intensity of technological modernization of production; availability of unique advanced developments and technologies in a number of sectors of the economy, mainly related to the military-industrial complex.
However, the use of these advantages is constrained by a number of reasons. This is the underdevelopment of the financial and organizational infrastructure of foreign trade cooperation; lack of a developed system of state support for exports; difficulties in adapting to the conditions of mass production based on competitive technologies concentrated in the defense complex and intended for small-scale or single-piece production; low production efficiency and an extremely high share of material costs, even in advanced industrial sectors.
Prospects for the development of Russia's foreign trade
There are certain prospects for expanding the export of science-intensive products, which is closely related to the conversion and commercialization of defense complex enterprises (in particular, the export of aerospace technologies and services, laser technology, equipment for nuclear power plants, and modern weapons).
With the development of domestic Agriculture and light industry, obviously, the share of consumer goods in Russian imports will decrease and the share of investment goods - machinery and equipment will increase.
conclusions
1. In the post-war period characteristic features international trade are its unprecedented high growth rates, the concentration of commodity exchange in the zone of developed countries, the increase in the share of industrial, primarily high technology, goods in world trade.
2. Theories of international trade have gone through a number of stages in their development along with the development of world economic thought.
3. Classical theories of international trade laid the foundations for the analysis of world economic relations. The creators of these theories developed the fundamental concepts of the world economy, substantiated the methodological methods of its in-depth study. The conclusions contained in the classical theories have become a kind of starting axioms for the entire further development of economic thought in the area under consideration.
4. The standard model of international trade, based on the achievements of neoclassical theory, made it possible to give a mathematical and graphical interpretation of the world commodity exchange and its impact on the economies of individual countries. Thus, a theory was created that more deeply and in detail reflected the realities of the development of world economic relations.
5. In alternative theories of international trade, its individual aspects are revealed that are not explained by classical theories. Some of the representatives of this trend, critically rethinking the achievements of their predecessors, offered their own original interpretation of the participation of national economies in international trade. Of particular note is the significant contribution to the development of the theory of international trade by M. Porter, the author of the theory of international competition. Much attention is paid to the formation of the national macro environment in the process of interaction of the main determinants that determine the competitive advantages of leading industries and firms in the world market. It is also of practical importance for the development of Russia's foreign economic strategy.
6. Russia's foreign trade, neither in its volume nor in the structure of exports and imports, does not correspond to the economic potential of the country. A more complete use of its competitive advantages and overcoming its inherent shortcomings is possible only in the process of reviving the country's economy, creating a full-fledged system of state support for its export potential.
Terms and concepts
world trade
Structure of world trade
World prices
Terms of trade
Theory of Absolute Advantage
Theory of comparative advantage
The Heckscher-Ohlin theory of factors of production
Theory of leveling prices for factors of production (Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theorem) Leontief's paradox
Standard International Trade Model
The theory of specific factors of production
Samuelson-Jones theorem
Theory of international trade based on economies of scale
Traded and non-tradable goods and services
Rybchinsky's theorem
"National rhombus" in the theory of international competition by M. Porter
Questions for self-examination
1. Suppose countries A have 1,000 workers each in two industries: VCRs and cameras. Each of the productions employs 500 workers. Country A has an absolute advantage in the production of cameras; one worker can produce 10 VCRs or 20 cameras per month. The country has an absolute advantage in the production of VCRs; one worker can produce 16 VCRs or 8 cameras.
Starting specialization and concentrating 1,000 workers in more efficient industries, countries began to trade with each other. Using the world price ratio of one VCR to one camera, show that both countries can have more VCRs and more cameras than they had before specializing and trading with each other.
2. Suppose that each of the two countries (A and B) has 2 million workers who are divided equally between the steel and shoe industries. At the same time, country A, in comparison with country B, is characterized by a greater productivity in the production of steel and identical productivity in the production of footwear: accordingly, 1 ton of steel and 10 pairs of shoes per 1 worker. In the country, 1 worker accounts for 0.5 tons of steel and 10 pairs of shoes. Show that country A has a comparative advantage in steel production and country A in footwear production.
By specializing and concentrating 2 million workers in industries with a comparative advantage, countries began to trade with each other. Using the ratio of world prices: 10 pairs of shoes - 0.6 tons of steel, show that trade between countries A is mutually beneficial, i.e. in both countries the consumption of steel will increase and the demand for shoes will be satisfied on the same scale.
3. Explain why, according to the Heckscher-Ohlin factor correlation theory, a country gets the most benefits from participating in international trade if it specializes in exporting goods that use the factors available in the country in abundance, and imports goods that use scarce factors. factors?
4. Why does the standard model of international trade assume increasing replacement costs? Explain this with specific examples.
5. What are the elements that make up a country's gain from participation in international exchange in accordance with the standard model of international trade? Define them.
6. On the basis of which of the theories: Heckscher-Ohlin, specific factors of production or the Rybchinsky theorem, the following conclusions were drawn:
a) an increase in food prices will lead to an increase in the income of land owners, i.e. a factor that is intensively used for food production, and a reduction in the income of the owners of other factors;
b) a relatively labor-surplus country will import relatively more capital-intensive goods;
c) an increase in the volume of applied capital, which is an excess factor in a given country, leads to a disproportionately large increase in production in export-oriented industries and a decrease in production in import-substituting industries.
7. What, according to the theory of "competitive advantages" by M. Porter, is the difference between general and highly specialized factors? Why do the latter most reliably provide competitive advantages in world trade of certain industries? Give specific examples.
8. What hinders the use of Russia's competitive advantages for its more effective participation in world trade?
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Introduction
1. The essence of international trade and its role in the system of world economic relations
Conclusion
List of used literature
international trade world economic theory
Introduction
The need for the emergence and development of a system of relations for the international exchange of goods and services is due to many reasons. One of them is that practically no country has the amount and range of resources necessary to fully meet the entire system of needs. Each country has a limited amount of labor and capital, allowing it to produce various goods that are part of the GDP. If a country has the best conditions for the production of individual commodities and the costs associated with this are minimal, then this allows it, by increasing the production of this commodity and selling it to other countries, to buy commodities that cannot be produced domestically or their production is too expensive. Therefore, always the reasons for the existence of foreign trade relations, and, consequently, the modern world market, remain the international division of labor and the mutual benefit of exchange.
In order for a country to be able to trade on the world market, it needs to have export resources, i.e. stocks of competitive goods and services that are in demand on the world market, foreign exchange or other means of payment for imports, as well as a developed foreign trade infrastructure: vehicles, warehouses, communications, etc. Settlements for foreign trade operations are made by banks, and the country's insurance business insures transportation and cargo. Of course, if necessary, you can use the services of the infrastructure of other countries, but, as a rule, these are very expensive services, and each country involved in the world market seeks to create its own infrastructure.
Two counter flows of goods and services form the exports and imports of each country. Export is the sale and export of goods abroad, import is the purchase and import of goods from abroad. The difference between the cost estimates of exports and imports forms the trade balance, and the sum of these estimates is the foreign trade turnover.
In the world market, as in any market, demand and supply are formed and the desire for market equilibrium is maintained. The purpose of the work is to analyze international trade as an economic category.
1. The concept of world trade
International trade is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence.
Structural shifts taking place in the economies of countries under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, specialization and cooperation of industrial production enhance the interaction of national economies. This contributes to the intensification of international trade. International trade, which mediates the movement of all intercountry commodity flows, is growing faster than production. According to the World Trade Organization, for every 10% increase in world production, there is a 16% increase in world trade. This creates more favorable conditions for its development. When there are disruptions in trade, the development of production also slows down.
The term "foreign trade" refers to the trade of a country with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.
Diverse foreign trade activities are subdivided according to commodity specialization into: trade in finished products, trade in machinery and equipment, trade in raw materials and trade in services.
International trade is the paid total trade turnover between all countries of the world. However, the concept of "international trade" is used in a narrower sense. It denotes, for example, the total trade turnover of industrialized countries, the total trade turnover of developing countries, the total trade turnover of countries of any continent or region.
The essence of international trade and its role in the system of world economic relations.
Foreign trade is an important and historically very first form of international economic relations. It represents the exchange of goods between state-registered national economies.
In modern conditions, all subjects of the world economy participate in international trade. It is based on the international division of labor. The development of international specialization of production and the deepening of the aforementioned division of labor (in the form of general, particular and individual) give rise to a variety of forms and directions of international trade. The scientific and technological revolution, which has accelerated the qualitative transformation of all elements of the productive forces and shifts in the geographical and commodity structure of world commodity flows, has a profound effect on it.
The scale of participation of individual national economies in international trade is related to the level of development of commodity production and commodity circulation in them. It is known that the beginnings of commodity production, commodity circulation and foreign trade already existed under the slave system. However, in all pre-capitalist formations, due to the predominance of natural economy, only an insignificant part of the products participated in international exchange.
The development of commodity production and the market economy gave a powerful impetus to the expansion of international trade as a special sphere of commodity circulation - between national economies.
With the development of a market economy, the need for an external market increases. The formation of a large-scale machine industry as the basis of mass production, a deepening of the division of labor and specialization, and an increase in the optimal size of enterprises require a more active participation of national economies in international trade, both in terms of exports and imports. The sale of goods abroad makes it possible to partially resolve the contradictions between production and consumption inherent in a market economy. However, not being fully resolved through the export of goods, these contradictions are transferred to the sphere of world economic relations, which finds expression in the intense competition characteristic of international trade.
At the same time, participation in it leads to the intensification of the reproduction process in national economies in a number of areas: specialization is enhanced, the possibility of organizing mass production is created, the degree of equipment utilization is increased, and the efficiency of introducing new equipment and technologies is increasing. The expansion of exports entails an increase in employment, which has important social consequences.
Active participation in international trade creates conditions for accelerating progressive structural shifts in national economies. For many developing countries (especially Asian ones), export growth has become an important component of the process of industrialization and increase in economic growth rates. Export proceeds are a significant source of capital accumulation for the needs of industrial development. The expansion of exports allows the mobilization and more efficient use of natural resources and labor, which ultimately contributes to the growth of labor productivity and incomes. The involvement of industrial enterprises that supply to the foreign market in international competition necessitates constant organizational and technical improvement of their activities, increasing the technical level and quality of goods produced in the country, which is a factor in the growth of labor productivity and economic efficiency. Because of this, the highest rates of economic development are characteristic of those countries where foreign trade is rapidly expanding, especially exports (Germany in the 50s and 60s, Japan in the 70s and 80s, the newly industrialized countries of Asia in the 90s).
At the same time, the increase in foreign trade exchange, the growing role of exports and imports in national economies contribute to the synchronization of the economic cycle in the world economy. The interconnection and interdependence of country economic complexes are growing so much that disruptions in the functioning of the economy of any major participant in the world market will inevitably entail international consequences, including the spread of crisis phenomena to other countries.
Thus, the place of international trade in the system of international economic relations is determined by the fact that, firstly, through it the results of all forms of world economic relations are realized - the export of capital, industrial cooperation, scientific and technical cooperation. Secondly, the development of international trade in goods ultimately determines the dynamics of the international exchange of services. Thirdly, the growth and deepening of interregional and interstate relations are an important prerequisite for international economic integration. Fourth, in this way, international trade contributes to the further deepening of the international division of labor and the internationalization of economic ties.
2. The concept, objects and subjects of international trade
International trade links national economies into a unified system of the world market. The latter has fundamental differences from domestic national markets:
Only competitive goods enter the world market;
There are world prices, which are based on international value (formed during the production of goods in the average global socially normal conditions);
It is more prone to monopolization (the dominance of TNCs);
The decisive influence can be exerted not by economic, but by political factors (for example, politics in the state, embargoes, etc.)
Settlements are made in freely convertible currency and in international units of account.
International trade is the sphere of commodity-money relations, which is a combination of foreign trade of all countries of the world. In other words, international trade is the sphere of exchange of products of labor (goods and services) between sellers and buyers of different countries.
Foreign trade is the exchange of goods and services between state-registered national economies. The term "foreign trade" applies only to a single country.
In the process of international trade, there are two directions of commodity flows - export and import. Depending on the origin and destination of goods, exports and imports are of the following types:
Classification of types of export and import:
|
1) export of goods manufactured (produced) in the given country; |
1) import from abroad of goods, technologies for sale on the importer's domestic market, as well as receiving paid services from a foreign importer for industrial and consumer purposes; |
|
|
2) export of raw materials and semi-finished products for processing abroad under customs control with subsequent return; |
2) import of raw materials, p / f, units, parts for processing in a given country and subsequent export abroad; |
|
|
3) re-export - export of goods previously imported from abroad, including goods sold at international auctions, commodity exchanges, etc.; |
3) re-import - return import from abroad of previously exported national goods; |
|
|
4) temporary export abroad of national goods (to exhibitions, fairs) with subsequent return or export of previously imported foreign goods (to auctions, exhibitions, fairs). |
4) temporary importation of goods to international exhibitions, fairs, auctions; |
|
|
5) export of products in the order of direct production relations (in engineering), as well as deliveries within the framework of TNCs. |
5) import of products within the framework of TNCs (transnational corporations). |
Indicators for assessing export-import deliveries are important for determining the quantitative characteristics of foreign and international trade, such as:
cost and physical volume (trade). The value of foreign trade is calculated for a certain period of time at current prices of the respective years using current exchange rates. There are nominal and real value of international trade. The nominal value of international trade is usually expressed in US dollars at current prices and is therefore highly dependent on the dynamics of the dollar exchange rate against other currencies. The real volume of international trade is the nominal volume converted into constant prices using a deflator (decrease in the general (average) price level in the country's economy; the process of reducing the growth of money supply in circulation). The physical volume of foreign trade is calculated at constant prices and allows making the necessary comparisons and determining its real dynamics. The above figures are calculated by all countries in national currencies and converted into US dollars for international comparison purposes;
commodity structure, which is the ratio of commodity groups in world exports. To date, there are over 20 million. types of manufactured products for industrial and consumer purposes, and the number of intermediate products reaches fantastic proportions. In addition, according to the estimates of the general agreement on tariffs and trade of the World Trade Organization, there are more than 600 types of services;
the geographical structure is the distribution of trade flows between individual countries and their groups, allocated either on a territorial or organizational basis. Territorial geographic structure - data on the international trade of countries belonging to one part of the world, or to one group. Organizational geographical structure - data on international trade between countries to separate integration and other trade and political groupings, or allocated to a separate group according to certain criteria (for example, oil exporting countries).
The subjects of international trade are all states of the world, which, depending on the level of their economic development, are divided into groups: countries with developed market economies (24 countries with high per capita incomes, including the Big Seven), developing countries (132 countries with low and middle income per capita) and countries with economies in transition (the former socialist countries of Eastern Europe and the USSR).
In addition, in modern conditions, the strengthening of the internationalization of the production sphere of the world economy puts forward transnational and multinational companies (TNCs and MNCs) as one of the most important subjects of international trade.
The development of integration processes is predetermined by the participation of integration regional groupings (for example, the European Union) as subjects of international trade. Thus, the subjects of international trade are:
1. countries of the world;
2. TNCs and MNCs;
3. regional integration groupings.
The objects of international trade are products of human labor - goods and services.
International trade is essential to the economic growth and development of countries in a dynamic global economy.
The development and complexity of world trade is reflected in the evolution of theories that explain the driving forces of this process. In modern conditions, differences in international specialization can only be analyzed on the basis of the totality of all key models of the international division of labor.
Having considered world trade in terms of its development trends, we can conclude that, on the one hand, there is a clear increase in international integration, the gradual erasure of borders and the creation of various interstate trade blocs, on the other hand, the deepening of the international division of labor, the division of countries into industrialized and backward.
Attention should be paid to the growing role modern means communications in the process of information exchange and the conclusion of the transactions themselves. Trends towards the depersonalization and standardization of goods allow accelerating the process of concluding transactions and the circulation of capital.
In historical terms, it is impossible not to note the growing influence of Asian countries on the processes of world trade. In my opinion, in the future this region will take a leading role in the global process of production and sale of goods.
In conclusion, I would like to say about world trade in our country. With a population of almost 150 million, with significant energy resources, a fairly highly skilled labor force, and a low cost of labor, Russia is a huge market for goods, services, and capital. However, the degree of realization of this potential in the foreign economic sphere is very modest.
Russia is experiencing problems, both in the field of exports and imports. But, despite the difficulties that arise, Russia's trade turnover with other countries is growing, which indicates the development and strengthening of trade and economic ties.
Unfortunately, the role of Russia in world trade is small, but for Russia itself the importance of the foreign economic sphere is very significant. The sphere of foreign trade provides great opportunities for the formation and development of the economy, the formation of the country's budget and the maintenance of the well-being of the people.
3. Basic theories of international trade
Classical theory of international trade
A. Smith substantiated the thesis, according to which the basis for the development of international trade is the difference in absolute costs. He noted that one should import goods from a country where costs are absolutely lower, and export those goods whose costs are lower than exporters.
The views of A. Smith were supplemented and developed by D. Ricardo, who formulated the theory of comparative costs. D. Ricardo showed that international exchange is possible and desirable in the interests of all countries. He considered mutually beneficial trade possible even in the presence of absolute advantages of one country over another in the production of goods.
Specialization based on the use of the principle of comparative advantage provides a more efficient allocation of world resources and the growth of world production of relevant goods. However, it should be borne in mind that the considered model of the division of labor is based on a number of simplifications. It comes from the presence of only two countries and two goods, free trade, perfect mobility of labor (i.e., labor) within each country in the absence of its overflow between countries); fixed production costs, complete interchangeability of resources for alternative uses; ignoring differences in wage levels between countries, as well as the absence of transport costs and technical changes.
These initial prerequisites were necessary to identify the basic principles for the development of international trade. However, some of them need to be clarified. In practice, the expansion of production in many industries is associated with an increase in marginal costs, so the release of each subsequent unit of this product required the abandonment of an ever-increasing amount of all the others.
Heckscher-Ohlin model.
The new model was created by the Swedish economists Eli Heckscher and Bertel Ohlin. Up until the 60s. the Heckscher-Ohlin model dominated the economic literature.
The essence of the neoclassical approach to international trade and the specialization of individual countries is as follows: For reasons of historical and geographical nature, the distribution of material and human resources between countries is uneven, which, according to neoclassicists, explains the differences in relative prices for goods, on which, in turn, depend national comparative advantage. From this follows the law of proportionality of factors: in an open economy, each country tends to specialize in the production of goods that require more factors with which the country is relatively better endowed. Olin put this law even more succinctly: "International exchange is the exchange of abundant factors for rare ones: a country exports goods whose production requires more abundant factors."
Leontief's paradox
The well-known American economist (of Russian origin) Wassily Leontiev, studying the structure of US exports and imports in 1956, found that, contrary to the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, exports were dominated by relatively more labor-intensive goods, while imports were dominated by capital-intensive ones. This result became known as Leontief's paradox.
Further studies showed that the contradiction discovered by V. Leontiev can be eliminated if more than two factors of production are taken into account when analyzing the structure of trade.
What explanation did V. Leontiev give to his paradox? He hypothesized that, in any combination with a given amount of capital, one man-year of American labor is equivalent to three man-years of foreign labor. And this means that the US is indeed a labor-surplus country, so there is no paradox.
V. Leontiev also suggested that the greater productivity of American labor is associated with higher qualifications of American workers. He ran a statistical test that showed that the US was exporting goods that required more skilled labor than those required to produce "competing imports." To do this, V. Leontiev divided all types of labor into five skill levels and calculated how many man-years of labor of each skill group are needed to produce $1 million worth of US exports and “competing imports”. It turned out that export goods required significantly more skilled labor than imported ones. Michael Porter's Theory of Country Competitive Advantage
The theory of comparative advantage was further developed on a qualitatively new basis in the works of the famous American economist Michael Porter.
Based on the analysis of extensive statistical material covering about 100 industries in eight industrialized countries. M. Porter created an original theory of the country's competitive advantage. The central place in his concept is occupied by the idea of the so-called national rhombus, which reveals the four main properties (“determinants”) of the economy that form the competitive macro-environment in which the firms of this country operate.
The "national rhombus" reveals a system of determinants that, being in interaction, create a favorable or unfavorable environment for realizing the country's potential competitive advantages.
4. Modern world trade
Over the past decade, the share of trade between developed and developing countries in total world trade has gradually increased - from 20% in 1995 to 22% in 2002. Developed countries still trade mainly among themselves, but for developing countries they were and remain the most important trading partners, the most profitable markets for their export products and best source the imported products they need. True, during the 1995-2000s. the terms of foreign trade of developing countries deteriorated due to the fall in world prices for raw materials, which until recently constituted the vast majority of their exports. Between 1995 and 2002, world prices for crude oil, for example, fell almost four times, for cocoa beans almost three times, and for coffee about two times. Experts continue to argue about whether this decline in world prices is temporary or permanent. However, developing countries, whose export revenues were heavily dependent on the prices of these and other commodities, have already suffered serious economic losses that have markedly slowed down their economic growth and development.
In response to falling commodity prices, many developing countries are successfully restructuring their exports by increasing the share of manufactured goods. On average, their exports to developed countries are now dominated by labour-intensive, low-cost research and development (R&D) manufactured products, such as clothing, carpets or watches, and other hand-assembled mechanisms. This allows developing countries to make better use of their abundant labor resources by creating more additional jobs.
Imports of developing countries from OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries mainly consist of capital-intensive manufactured products that embody modern achievements in science and technology, primarily machinery and equipment. In the production of capital and knowledge-intensive goods, the developed countries still have not only a comparative, but also an absolute advantage over the developing countries.
One of the subjects of political debate in developed countries is the question of how much the import of cheap labor-intensive goods from developing countries is to blame for the relative decline in the average wage level of low-skilled workers (which is observed, for example, in the US and the UK) and the increase in unemployment, also primarily among low-skilled workers (which occurs in recently in Western Europe). However, most experts agree that, although trade with developing countries has some impact on the industrial composition and labor markets in developed countries, main reason exacerbation of these social problems is not in it. According to experts, the fall in demand for the labor of workers with limited human capital is caused primarily by the "labor-saving" direction of scientific and technological progress and the post-industrial restructuring of the economy of developed countries.
Characterizing the sectoral structure of world trade in the first half of the 20th century (before the Second World War) and in subsequent decades, we see significant changes. If in the first half of the century 2/3 of the world trade was accounted for by food, raw materials and fuel, then by the end of the century they accounted for only 1/4. The share of trade in manufacturing products increased from 1/3 to 3/4. And, finally, more than 1/3 of all world trade by the end of the 90s is the trade in machinery and equipment.
The most dynamic and intensively developing sector of world trade is trade in manufacturing products, especially high-tech goods. Thus, the export of science-intensive products is more than 500 billion dollars a year, and the share of high-tech products is approaching 40% in the export of industrialized countries.
Significantly increased the role of trade in machinery and equipment. The most rapidly growing export of electrical and electronic equipment, which accounts for more than 25% of all exports of engineering products. The annual growth of the world market of microelectronics up to 2010 is predicted at the level of 10-15%. In 2005, worldwide sales of electronic devices of all kinds surpassed the $1 trillion milestone. dollars.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is worth noting that the development and complication of international trade is reflected in the evolution of theories that explain the driving forces of this process. In modern conditions, differences in international specialization can only be analyzed on the basis of the totality of all key models of the international division of labor.
If we consider world trade in terms of its development trends, then on the one hand, there is a clear strengthening of international integration, the gradual erasure of borders and the creation of various interstate trade blocs, on the other hand, a deepening of the international division of labor, the gradation of countries into industrialized and backward.
It is impossible not to notice the ever-increasing role of modern means of communication in the process of exchanging information and concluding transactions themselves. Trends towards the depersonalization and standardization of goods allow accelerating the process of concluding transactions and the circulation of capital.
In historical terms, it is impossible not to note the growth of the influence of Asian countries on the processes of world trade, it is quite likely that in the new millennium this region will take a leading role in the global process of production and sale of goods.
Bibliography
1. Avdokushin E.F. International economic relations: Textbook. - M.: Jurist, 2001.
2. Andrianov V.D. Russia: economic and investment potential. - M.: Economics, 2003.
3. George Modelski, William Thompson. Kondratieff waves, the development of the world economy and international politics// Issues of Economics - 2012. - No. 10.
4. International currency and credit relations: Textbook / Ed.L.N. Krasavina. - M.: Finance and statistics, 2002.
5. Sergeev P.V. World economy and international economic relations at the present stage: Proc. manual on the course "World Economy". - M .: New Lawyer, 2000.
6. Fomichev V.I. International Trade: Textbook. - M.: INFRA-M, 2002.
7. Shcherbanin Yu.A. etc. International economic relations: Integration: Proc. allowance for universities. - M.: Banks and stock exchanges, UNITI, 2000.
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The activity aimed at mediation between producers and consumers in the mutual exchange of economic benefits is called trade from an economic point of view. When mediation takes place between domestic producers and foreign consumers, or vice versa, trade becomes external (otherwise - international).
international trade(international trade) - the sphere of international commodity-money relations, which is a set of foreign trade of all countries of the world.
In relation to one country, the term "foreign trade of the state" is usually used, in relation to the trade of two countries among themselves - "interstate, mutual, bilateral trade", and in relation to the trade of all countries with each other - "international or world trade".
In essence, trade in a broad sense consists of its separate varieties, and in each of them a trade, commercial, “profitable” basis is sure to be found. The difference lies in the subject and in the forms of commercial transactions underlying the economic relations of the parties. For example, in the field of the exchange of intellectual property, the goods can be copyright, patent and other similar rights, and special transactions (licensing, etc.) can be an assignment of the rights to use this specific product, in a commercial sense, a kind of lease, rental.
The subject of trade can be a wide variety of values, benefits, including:
1) material values, things, movable and real estate, i.e., a commodity in the narrow sense of the word;
2) "invisible" items of trade, in particular services, labor;
3) results of intellectual activity, intellectual property rights, information;
4) money and securities, because in practice money (especially "currency") can be a commodity, because they can be traded; This is especially true for securities. Trade and monetary and financial relations are difficult to separate.
International trade - trade across borders between countries, the exchange of goods and services. The difference between countries in their competitive advantage (or comparative advantage) in producing different products leads to the international division of labor (location of production) and determines the flow of exports and imports between countries.
International trade can bring benefits in both consumption and production. It contributes to the improvement of living standards and production efficiency. International trade allows countries to consume some goods and services cheaper through imports, as well as to obtain some resources and products from other countries that would not be available otherwise because domestic producers are not able to put them on the market (for example, a rare raw material or a high-tech product ).
International trade encourages production efficiency by reallocating resources away from regions best served by imports to industries where the country has a competitive advantage over trading partners.
Variations in the competitive advantage of different countries are reflected in their different cost structures (i.e., competitive price) as well as in different skill levels (competitiveness in product differentiation). These, in turn, are largely determined by large underlying factors of production (natural resources, labor, capital) and the degree of economic maturity (level of income per capita, general levels of costs and prices, scientific and technical qualifications, etc.). The availability of resources and skills determines the choice of products that a country can technically produce, while the relative costs, price, and differentiation of products determine the economic benefits of producing products in which it has a relative advantage over other countries.
In a simplified form, the theory of competitive advantage generates international production and trade relations. Suppose country A has cheap labor and country B has capital (capital is cheaper relative to labor) and that the product X is labor intensive, and the product Y- capital intensive. Then country A will have a relative advantage over country B in the production of the product X, and country B will have the same advantage in producing the product Y. It follows that both countries will profit from specialization and trade: country A produces the product X and exports some part of it in exchange for importing the product Y, and country B produces a product Y and trades with country A, selling to it part Y in exchange for X.
Endowment with factors of production, and hence competitive advantages are fixed. Over time, competitive advantages change. This can happen in response to some kinds of influence:
1) the government of the country begins to implement structural programs leading to the redistribution of resources. For example, a country that at first sight has an advantage in the supply of primary products such as cotton or wheat may nevertheless abandon them or shift the focus to industrialization and to establishing a competitive advantage in manufactured goods, where the added value is always higher;
2) in response to capital movements in the international market and to the transfer of technology, as well as in the case of the redistribution of production by transnational corporations. For example, Malaysia has a competitive advantage in rubber production after British entrepreneurs established and invested in rubber plantations.
Taking into account the advantages of international trade, it should be noted that optimization of such advantages is achieved in the conditions of free trade(i.e. in the absence of prohibitions and restrictions on trade, such as tariffs and quotas). These views are shared by the international community following the entry into force of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the formation of various regional free trade blocs. In practice, however, the benefits of international trade are often unequally distributed among countries, and this inevitably leads to a situation where national interests are placed above international obligations.
World trade is the simplest and most obvious form of implementation of the international division of labor. Each country, in accordance with its natural and geographical conditions and the level of technical and economic development, participates to a greater or lesser extent in the world exchange of goods and services. Its participation in world trade is characterized by two ratios: import and export of goods and services.
The export of goods and services from the country and their sale in foreign markets is called export. The export orientation of a country, as well as the volume of goods and services it exports, are predetermined economic efficiency their export, as well as the solution of a number of internal economic and social problems.
The importation of goods and services and their sale in the domestic market of the country is called import .The range of imported goods and services is determined by obtaining noticeable advantages compared to their domestic production. Savings can be associated with both comparative costs and factorial shortages in a given country in the production of the corresponding product. In addition, with the help of imports, the saturation of demand and the satisfaction of needs for goods and services are quickly achieved, as well as the release of resources spent on the production of similar goods.
The importation of goods for the purpose of not selling them on the domestic market, but exporting them to third countries is called re-export .This is one of the forms of benefiting from "intermediation" or one of the ways to achieve a certain balance in foreign trade with several partner countries in foreign economic activity. Re-export is also resorted to in cases where the economic entities of a given country cannot enter the domestic markets of some countries for various political, military-strategic, or economic reasons. In this case, the channels of foreign economic relations of partners from those countries with which there are normal relations are used. Re-export can also be used to carry out illegal foreign trade operations.
The whole set of foreign trade operations for export is called foreign trade balance of the country where exports are active and imports are passive.
total amount export and import forms foreign trade turnover of the country.
The difference between the sum of exports and the sum of imports is foreign trade balance . The trade balance is positive if exports are greater than imports and, conversely, negative if imports exceed exports.
The ratio of exports and imports of goods and services of an open economy has a significant impact on the economic situation in the country. Exports, like consumption of investments, cause an increase in domestic production.
In the event of an increase in imports, there will be a reorientation of part of the costs from consumption and investment to imports, i.e. services produced in other countries. And this will already entail a reduction in demand for domestically produced products, the curtailment of jobs, and a reduction in income.