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Peasantry. Everyday life and customs of Russia in the 17th century.
Project participants
Peasant yard The structure of the peasant yard of the usual type included: a hut covered with shingles or straw, heated “in a black way”; crate for storage of property; barn for livestock; barn. In winter, the peasants kept small livestock (pigs, calves, lambs) and poultry (hens, geese, ducks) in their hut.
Furnishings of the hut The furnishing was rather meager and consisted of simple tables and benches fixed along the walls (they served not only for sitting, but also for lodging for the night).
Furnishings of the hut In winter, the peasant family slept on the stove - it was the warmest place in the house. The material for clothing was homespun canvas, sheep skins (sheepskin) and animals caught hunting (wolves, bears)
Dishes Dishes were wooden or earthenware. Metal utensils were very rare and cost a lot of money. Food was cooked in a Russian oven in earthenware. Ate in wooden plates and wooden spoons
What they ate The basis of nutrition was cereals - rye, wheat, oats, millet. Bread and pies were baked from rye (daily) and wheat (on holidays) flour. Kissels were prepared from oats. Many vegetables were eaten - cabbage, carrots, beets, radishes, cucumbers, turnips.
What they ate Meat dishes were cooked in small quantities on holidays. A more frequent product on the table was fish. Prosperous peasants had garden trees that gave them apples, plums, cherries, and pears. In the northern regions of the country, peasants gathered cranberries, lingonberries, blueberries; in the central regions - strawberries. Mushrooms and hazelnuts were also used as food.
Marriage Marriage could be concluded no more than three times. But at the same time, even a second marriage was considered a great sin, for which church punishment was imposed.
Marriage Since the 17th century, marriage had to be without fail be blessed by the church. Weddings were celebrated, as a rule, in autumn and winter - when there was no agricultural work
Conclusion Thus, despite the preservation of the main features of traditional life, customs and mores, in the 17th century significant changes took place in life and everyday life, which were based on both eastern and western influence.
APPENDIX
chicken hut
Black heated hut
The interior of the chicken hut
Russian towel
Folk crafts
Used resources http://arhistroika.ru/kurnaya-izba http://club.doctorgavrilov.ru/profiles/blogs/6459150:BlogPost:268809 http://images.yandex.ru/yandsearch
THE LIFE OF A RUSSIAN PEASANT WOMAN INXVI- XVIICENTURIES
Koronova Lilia Romanovna
student of the faculty of history and jurisprudence of the EI K(P)FU
E-mail: lilia [email protected] yandex . en
Krapotkina Irina Evgenievna
cand. ist. Sciences, Associate Professor EI K(P)FU, Yelabuga
The history of everyday life is one of the most promising areas that have been developed in Russian historiography since the end of the 20th century. The topic is relevant against the backdrop of increased at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. interest in researching the status of Russian women in modern society for which it is necessary to study and comprehend the economic and socio-political position of women in Russia over a long historical period.
According to the first general census of the population of the Russian Empire in 1897, the peasantry was the largest estate and accounted for 77.1% of the population, and peasant women accounted for 38.9% of the total population of the entire Russian Empire.
For the peasant family of the XVI-XVII centuries, it is characteristic that the spirit of mutual assistance reigned in it; responsibilities were strictly assigned. The people had a very high prestige family life.
The Russian peasant family of the 16th century consisted of an average of 15-20 people. It was a patriarchal family in which three or four generations of relatives lived together. However, already in the 17th century, there were no more than 10 people in families, representatives of only two generations.
A peasant marriage was concluded for economic reasons: the feelings or desires of the young were not taken into account - the landowner could marry the serfs at his own discretion. In addition, it was not accepted among the people that young people and girls themselves entered into marriage.
When choosing a bride, preference was given to healthy and hardworking girls - this was due to the fact that after marriage, women's shoulders fell on the household, raising children, working in the garden and field. Girls who were engaged in needlework were more likely to successfully marry.
In the 16th-17th centuries, marriage was entered into very early - girls from the age of 12, and boys from 15. And there was also a ban on marriages with relatives up to the sixth generation and with non-believers. It was possible to enter into marriage no more than three times, and “Stoglav” also speaks of this: “The first marriage is the law, the second is forgiveness, the third is a crime, the fourth is wickedness, there is life like a pig.”
The creation of a new family was necessarily accompanied by a wedding celebration. The Russian wedding contained two elements: Christian (wedding) and folk (“fun”). It was customary to play weddings in autumn or winter - this was the most successful time, since all agricultural work was completed. Before the wedding, matchmaking always took place, during which the bride's parents decided whether they should marry their daughter to this groom. If they agreed, then a “conspiracy” took place: the groom and his father came to the bride’s parents in the house and the parties agreed on wedding expenses, terms, the size of the bride’s dowry and the groom’s gifts. Having come to a single decision, they began preparing for the wedding.
"Domostroy" taught parents to collect their daughter's dowry from birth, setting aside "from any profit." The dowry included pieces of linen, clothes, shoes, jewelry, dishes - all this was put in a box or chest.
After all the preparations were completed, the wedding was played at the agreed time. A peasant wedding of the 16th-17th centuries was accompanied by many rites: scratching the head with a comb dipped in honey, dressing hair under a kiku, showering the newlyweds with hops, treating them with bread and salt - these rites were aimed at attracting happiness to the young in family life. However, there was a custom that determined the further position of a woman in the family: the groom put a whip in one of the boots, and a coin in the other. The task of the bride was to remove the boots from the groom's feet in turn, if the first was a boot with a coin, then she was considered lucky, and family life was happy, and if the boot with a whip was the first, then the husband defiantly hit his wife with it - thus the husband showed the nature of further relations in family .
The position of a married peasant woman of the 16th-17th centuries was freer than that of women of the upper classes: she could freely leave the house, doing household chores.
Peter Petrey notes that peasant women worked in the field and at home on a par with their husbands. At the same time, the woman had other things to do, such as cooking, washing, needlework, that is, making clothes for all family members, and they also carried firewood and water to the hut. In addition, the foreigner notes that husbands often beat their wives.
However, the woman had great authority in the family. It especially increased after the birth of a boy - this was due to the allotment of land only to men. Peasant women of the 16th-17th centuries were constantly busy with business even during pregnancy, in connection with this, childbirth could take place anywhere - in a field, in a hut or in a barn. In the Russian medieval society, the hospital was replaced by a bathhouse and, if possible, they tried to give birth there. "Domostroy" ordered to teach children respect for parents. The child was taught the appropriate craft from an early age. The mother taught her daughter to housekeeping and needlework from an early age: from the age of 6 she began to master the spinning wheel, from 10 - the sickle, sewing. At the age of 14, girls already knew how to weave, mow hay and bake bread. At the age of 15, peasant girls worked in the field on an equal basis with adults.
In their free time from field and household work, women were engaged in weaving. I. E. Zabelin writes that the linen business in the peasant economy was exclusively in the hands of women. In addition, sewing and spinning were also the occupation of women and girls on long winter evenings. Sewing shirts was a very troublesome business: the preparation of flax fiber took place in the summer, then it was soaked for several weeks, then the stems were crushed, ruffled and combed - as a result, raw materials for spinning were obtained. Having finished spinning, peasant women wove canvases, for this a loom was brought into the house from the shed. In the summer, when the linen was woven, it was whitewashed in the sun, spread out on a meadow. Only after all this was the canvas ready for cutting and sewing. In the XVI-XVII centuries, girls were engaged in needlework, having gathered together by the light of a torch; Evenings were spent in conversation.
Since ancient times, clothing has been designed not only to hide nudity, but also to emphasize the wealth of a person. In addition, it was believed that clothes are designed to ward off evil spirits.
Thanks to the information of foreign guests, it is possible to compile a description of the outfits of Russian peasant women. The clothes of men and women were very similar; was not pleasing to the eye and was sewn at home. The peasants worked in old clothes, after finishing their work, they changed into everyday clothes, and on holidays, they put on smart clothes to the church. Clothes were often inherited, carefully stored in crates and chests, and cleaned after each wear. The main item of clothing in the 16th-17th centuries was a shirt made of woolen fabric, the so-called sackcloth, and linen or hemp, but due to the complexity of the manufacturing technology, linen shirts were less common.
According to Russian medieval mores, a woman was not allowed to emphasize her figure, so the shirt had a loose fit, did not fit to the body and reached the knees. From the 17th century, they began to wear a sundress over a shirt, that is, a sleeveless dress that fitted the chest and expanded downwards or poneva - a blue or black woolen skirt with a decorated bottom.
In the clothes of peasants until the 16th-17th centuries, the belt played the role of a talisman, but by the indicated period this meaning had been lost and it became just a traditional costume detail.
Particular attention in the XVI-XVII centuries was paid to women's headdresses, as there was a clear distinction between girls' and women's. Before marriage, girls were allowed to bare their heads, after marriage - this was considered indecent behavior. Girls wore dressings - decorated strips of fabric that wrapped around their heads with a hoop, “kosniks” - decorations for a braid, and married women wore volosniki (home dress), underbrusniks (soft hats worn with a ubrus or scarf), ubrusy (holiday dress), kokoshniks (worn from marriage to the birth of the first child and on holidays) or kiki, that is, they twisted their hair and hid it under a cap.
Outerwear peasants was made from sheep skin, which had a specific smell. Peasant women had bast shoes on their feet, which were made in their own household from bast mixed with pieces of fur or coarse cloth. In winter, felt boots and woolen socks were worn. There were no stockings - they were replaced by pieces of linen that wrapped the legs.
It is typical for the peasants that they always kept their elegant dresses clean and stored in chests, taking them out only on holidays and for going to church. Often items of clothing passed by inheritance.
Women of the peasant class of the 16th-17th centuries could not afford to purchase expensive items of jewelry, so clothes were decorated with embroidery.
The girl in advance began to make clothes that would be her dowry, since this required a very long and painstaking work. For the wedding, most often the bride wore a beautiful, that is, red dress.
I would like to note that the peasant women did not care about grace, taste or combination of colors. All the clothes were made by hand and therefore they were treated very carefully, new clothes were put on in exceptional cases and, having taken care of their safety, they were put back into the chests where they were stored. Clothing in the XVI-XVII centuries was worn until it became completely unusable. Another feature of Russian peasant clothing in the period under review is that there were no clothes made specifically for children - they were forced to wear adult clothes, and if clothes were sewn on them, then “for growth”.
In other words, the clothes of a Russian peasant woman of the 16th-17th centuries did not differ in a variety of forms and matter, so they tried to decorate them with embroidery and other methods. The main purpose of clothing was protection from the cold and covering nudity - and homespun clothing coped with this.
The peasant table of the 16th-17th centuries did not differ in variety and was based on custom. The basis of the diet was black bread, cabbage soup, porridge and kvass; many dishes were similar to each other.
"Domostroy" advised the hostess to be interested in the tricks of cooking from "good wives". The food of the peasants was closely connected not only with religion (strict observance of fasts), but also with what the peasant farms themselves produced.
The observance of fasts in the XVI-XVII centuries gave special meaning each Orthodox Christian. For this reason, the table of the Russian peasant was divided into lean and modest (meat-eater). During fasting days, the use of meat and dairy products was prohibited, and all this was allowed in the meat-eater. AT Orthodox calendar there were four main multi-day fasts and many one-day fasts. Thus, the number of fasting days in total took about 200 calendar days. In addition to large fasts, Wednesday and Friday throughout the year, with the exception of Christmas time and continuous weeks, were also fast days. Religious norms and "Domostroy" regulated the use of certain products during the four main posts.
Walked first great post, which had a duration of 40 days, lean bread, fish, porridge with it, porridge from peas, dried and boiled mushrooms, cabbage soup, pancakes, jelly, pies with jam, onions, peas, turnips, mushrooms, cabbage were served at the table.
The next was Peter's fast, which began a week after Trinity Day and ended on Peter's Day, that is, on July 12. During this fast, Orthodox peasants ate fish, fish soup seasoned with saffron, onions and garlic, pies with millet and peas, mushrooms, cabbage soup.
Next came the Assumption Fast, which lasted from 1 to 14 August. At this time, fish food was served at the table: sauerkraut with fish, fish seasoned with garlic, in gravy with seasonings, fish jellies, fish soup, fish balls, pastries, sour pies with peas or fish.
And the final major post was Christmas, which lasted 6 weeks from November 12 until the Nativity of Christ. Here, the peasants of the 16th-17th centuries ate boiled and stewed fish seasoned with garlic and horseradish, fish jelly, fish soup, loaves. At the end of the Christmas Lent, the peasants tried to serve dishes from the meat of piglets or ducklings on the festive table.
The largest one-day fasts are the day of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, Christmas Eve. On these days, wholemeal porridge, peas, baked turnips, cabbage soup and pickle were served.
The basis of peasant nutrition was rye bread, and pastries made from wheat flour were put on the table only on major holidays. No meal was complete without bread. In addition, he played an important role in various ceremonies: religious (prosphora for communion, Easter cakes for Easter), wedding (newlyweds were greeted with “bread and salt”), folk (pancakes for Shrovetide, gingerbread for spring).
Bread was baked once a week in a special wooden tub - a kvass, which was rarely washed, because it was constantly in operation. Before putting the dough, the hostess rubbed the walls of the tub with salt, then poured warm water over it. In the peasant economy of the 16th-17th centuries, a piece of dough left over from previous baking was used for sourdough. Next, the flour was poured and thoroughly mixed, left overnight in a warm place. The hostess kneaded the dough that had risen in the morning until it began to lag behind both the hands and the walls of the kneading bowl. After that, the dough was again put in a warm place for the night, and kneaded again in the morning. Now the dough was molded and placed in the oven. Baked bread was stored in special wooden bread bins. A woman who knew how to bake delicious bread was especially respected in the family. In lean years, the peasants were forced to add quinoa, tree bark, ground acorns, nettles and bran to the flour, as a result of which the bread acquired a bitter aftertaste.
In the 16th-17th centuries, peasants baked not only bread from flour, but also pies, pancakes, pancakes, gingerbread, but all this was present exclusively on the festive table. Pancakes can be considered the most popular flour dish: they were cooked for Shrove Tuesday, fed a woman in labor and commemorated the deceased. Next came pies - they were prepared from yeast, unleavened and puff pastry, and they could be baked in oil (spun) and without it in the hearth of the oven (hearth). The filling for pies was eggs, fruits and berries, meat and fish, cottage cheese, vegetables, mushrooms, cereals. Another flour dish of the Russian peasant holiday table was gingerbread. different shapes. When preparing the dough, honey and spices were added to it - hence the name. Kalachi was baked from a mixture of rye and wheat flour.
In the peasant environment of the 16th-17th centuries, cabbage soup and porridge were the most widespread, and any stew was called cabbage soup. Porridges were cooked from cereals in milk or water with the addition of butter. Kashi was an attribute of many folk rituals, for example, it was boiled for christenings, weddings and commemorations. If a woman knew how to cook tasty cabbage soup and bake bread, then this was already a reason to consider her a good housewife. Shchi was prepared from fresh and sour cabbage, often with the addition of turnips and beets. In general, turnips were considered the second bread. Shchi was cooked both in meat broth and simply in water.
In the early days, on the Russian medieval peasant table, one could often find milk soups and cereals from various cereals, flavored with butter or lard, cheeses, cottage cheese, sour cream and meat dishes. There was plenty of meat on Russian soil, but the peasants ate little of it; each type of meat was supplemented with garden crops (turnips, garlic, onions, cucumbers, peppers, radishes). From spring to late autumn, meat dishes were prepared mainly from lamb; in winter - from beef (since a large number of meat did not spoil in the cold), before Christmas - from salted or smoked pork.
However, not everything on the peasant table was grown by the peasant family itself. Fish soup, cooked from river fish caught on communal lands, was widely used. The fish was also consumed in a salted, boiled, smoked form and was used to make cabbage soup, pies, cutlets, served with buckwheat, millet and other cereals. Poultry dishes (home-raised or hunted) were well seasoned with horseradish and vinegar.
A feature of the dishes of the Russian table is that they were richly seasoned with onions, garlic, pepper, mustard and vinegar, but salt, due to its high cost, the peasants could rarely afford.
The most common drinks among the peasants of the 16th-17th centuries were kvass, fruit drink, and in April - berezovets, that is, birch sap. Beer, honey, vodka were also widely used.
Kvass drinks were available to many, besides, many dishes could be prepared on its basis, for example, okroshka, beetroot, tyuryu. Good hostess she knew how to prepare a wide variety of kvass: from barley or rye malt, from honey and berries (cherries, bird cherry, raspberries, cranberries) or fruits (apples, pears). In addition, kvass, as well as cabbage, were excellent means of preventing diseases such as scurvy. Beer was brewed from barley, oats, rye and wheat. The original and best Russian drink, famous among foreigners, was mead; all travelers unanimously recognized his dignity. Honey was brewed from berries (raspberries, currants, cherries, lingonberries, bird cherry), with yeast or hops.
In the 17th century, vodka appeared and became widespread among the peasantry. Usually Russian vodka was made from rye, wheat or barley, but there was an exception - this is women's vodka, which was made with the addition of molasses or honey, due to which it turned out to be sweet. In addition, in the manufacture of vodka, they often insisted on various spices (cinnamon, mustard) and fragrant herbs (mint, St. John's wort, juniper) and made liqueurs on different berries.
Alcoholic drinks were widespread - they were usually consumed on various holidays and occasions, but foreign travelers note that drunkenness was a frequent occurrence among the Russian people in the 16th-17th centuries. "Domostroy" forbade a woman to drink intoxicating drinks, however, Jacques Margeret notes that women and girls were often given to drunkenness.
In the peasant environment, it was believed that food must be earned, so they rarely had breakfast. A peasant family of the 16th-17th centuries rarely managed to dine together: in a bad time, they ate right in the field in order not to waste time.
Based on the foregoing, we can say that the food culture of the peasants of the XVI-XVII centuries was fully dependent on religious fasts and products Agriculture. The daily diet of the peasants was extremely unpretentious and consisted of cereals, vegetables (such as turnips, cabbage, cucumbers), meat and fish, that is, their meal was mostly simple, due to the fact that food was consumed that was grown on their plot .
Summing up, I would like to note that a Russian woman of the 16th-17th centuries provided full support and assistance to her husband, she worked on an equal footing with him; in addition, she was engaged in raising children, sewing clothes and cooking. The peasant family was large, and the incomes were small, as a result of which the woman could not afford to buy clothes - everything was produced on the farm itself. The situation was also with the peasant table - they were forced to give most of what they produced to the landowners. Thus, the peasant family was very close-knit, and the position of a woman in the family depended on her own skills.
Bibliography:
- Adam Olearius. Description of travel to Muscovy // [Electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://www.vostlit.info/
- Jerome Horsey. Notes on Russia in the 16th - early 17th centuries. / Ed. V.L. Yanina; Per. and comp. A.A. Sevastyanova. - M.: MGU, 1990. - 288 p. // [Electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://krotov.info/
- Domostroy / Comp., entry. Art. per. and comment. V.V. Kolesova; Prep. texts by V.V. Rozhdestvenskaya, V.V. Kolesov and M.V. Pimenova; Artistic A.G. Tyurin. - M.: Sov. Russia, 1990. - 304 p.
- Zabelin I.E. Home life of Russian queens in the 16th and 17th centuries. - M.: Printing house of Grachev and Co., 1869. - 852s. // [Electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://az.lib.ru/
- Zabylin M. Russian people. His customs, rituals, traditions, superstitions and poetry. M., 1880. - 624 p. // [Electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://www.knigafund.ru/
- An Italian in Russia in the 16th century Francesco da Collo. Report on Muscovy. - M.: Heritage. 1996 // [Electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://www.drevlit.ru/
- Kostomarov N. Domestic life and customs of the Great Russian people. - M.: Economics, 1993. - 400 p. // [Electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://lib.rus.ec/
- Margeret Jacques. Russia at the beginning of the 17th century Notes of Captain Margeret / Comp. d.h.s. Yu.A. Limonov. Rep. ed. d.h.s. IN AND. Buganov. Translation by T.I. Shaskolskaya, N.V. Revunenkov. - M.: Institute of History of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 1982. - 254 p. // [Electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://www.vostlit.info/
- Michalon Litvin. On the morals of the Tatars, Lithuanians and Muscovites / Translation into Russian Khoroshevich A.L. - M., 1994 // [Electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://www.vostlit.info/
- Description of Muscovy in relation gr. Carlyle / Per. from French with preface and note. I.F. Pavlovsky. - 1879. - V. 5. - 46 p. // [Electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://www.vostlit.info/
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- Pushkareva N.L. Women Ancient Russia. - M.: Thought, 1989. - 286 p.
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- Ryabtsev Yu.S. History of Russian culture. Artistic life and life of the XI-XVII centuries: Tutorial- M.: Humanit. ed. center VLADOS, 1997. - 336 p.
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Presentation slides
slide 1
Peasantry:
everyday life and customs
slide 2
1. What was part of the peasant household. 2. Furnishings of a peasant's hut. 3. Dishes. 4. Food. 5. Marriage.
slide 3
Peasant yard.
slide 4
The situation of the hut.
The furnishings were rather sparse and consisted of simple tables and benches fixed along the walls (they served not only for sitting, but also for sleeping). In winter, the peasant family slept on the stove - it was the warmest place in the house. The material for clothing was homespun canvas, sheep skins (sheepskin) and animals caught hunting (wolves, bears)
Slide 5
The dishes were wooden or earthenware. Metal utensils were very rare and cost a lot of money. Food was cooked in a Russian oven in earthenware. They ate in wooden plates and wooden spoons.
slide 6
The basis of nutrition was cereals - rye, wheat, oats, millet. Bread and pies were baked from rye (daily) and wheat (on holidays) flour. Kissels were prepared from oats. Many vegetables were eaten - cabbage, carrots, beets, radishes, cucumbers, turnips. Meat dishes were cooked in small quantities on holidays. A more frequent product on the table was fish. Prosperous peasants had garden trees that gave them apples, plums, cherries, and pears. In the northern regions of the country, peasants gathered cranberries, lingonberries, blueberries; in the central regions - strawberries. Mushrooms and hazelnuts were also used as food.
Slide 7
Marriage could be concluded no more than three times. But at the same time, even a second marriage was considered a great sin, for which church punishment was imposed. Since the 17th century, marriages had to be blessed by the church without fail. Weddings were celebrated, as a rule, in autumn and winter - when there was no agricultural work
A Russian dwelling is not a separate house, but a fenced yard in which several buildings, both residential and utility, were built. Izba was the general name of a residential building. The word "hut" comes from the ancient "istba", "stove". Initially, this was the name of the main heated residential part of the house with a stove.
As a rule, the dwellings of rich and poor peasants in the villages practically differed in quality factor and the number of buildings, the quality of decoration, but consisted of the same elements. The presence of such outbuildings as a barn, a barn, a shed, a bathhouse, a cellar, a barn, an exit, a barn, etc., depended on the level of development of the economy. All buildings in literally words were cut with an ax from the beginning to the end of construction, although longitudinal and transverse saws were known and used. The concept of "peasant yard" included not only buildings, but also the plot of land on which they were located, including a vegetable garden, a garden, a threshing floor, etc.
Main building material there was a tree. The number of forests with beautiful "business" forests far exceeded what is now preserved in the vicinity of Saitovka. The best breeds trees for buildings were considered pine and spruce, but pine was always preferred. Oak was valued for the strength of the wood, but it was heavy and difficult to work. It was used only in the lower crowns of log cabins, for the construction of cellars or in structures where special strength was needed (mills, wells, salt pits). Other tree species, especially deciduous (birch, alder, aspen), were used in the construction, as a rule, of outbuildings.
For each need, trees were selected according to special characteristics. So, for the walls of the log house, they tried to pick up special "warm" trees, overgrown with moss, straight, but not necessarily straight-layered. At the same time, not just straight, but straight-layered trees were necessarily chosen for the roof board. More often, log cabins were collected already in the yard or near the yard. Carefully chose the place for the future home
For the construction of even the largest log-type buildings, they usually did not build a special foundation along the perimeter of the walls, but supports were laid at the corners of the huts - large boulders or the so-called "chairs" from oak stumps. In rare cases, if the length of the walls was much longer than usual, the supports were placed in the middle of such walls. The very nature of the log construction of buildings made it possible to confine ourselves to relying on four main points, since the log house was a seamless structure.
The vast majority of buildings were based on a "cage", "crown", a bunch of four logs, the ends of which were chopped into a tie. The methods of such felling could be different according to the execution technique.
The main constructive types of logged peasant residential buildings were "cross", "five-wall", a house with a cut. For insulation between the crowns of logs, moss was interspersed with tow.
but the purpose of the connection was always the same - to fasten the logs together into a square with strong knots without any additional connection elements (staples, nails, wooden pins or knitting needles, etc.). Each log had strictly certain place in construction. Having cut down the first wreath, they cut the second one on it, the third one on the second, etc., until the log house reached a predetermined height.
The roofs of the huts were mostly covered with straw, which, especially in lean years, often served as fodder for livestock. Sometimes more prosperous peasants erected roofs made of plank or batten. Tes was made by hand. To do this, two workers used high goats and a long longitudinal saw.
Everywhere, like all Russians, the peasants of Saitovka, according to a common custom, when laying a house, put money under the lower crown in all corners, and a larger coin was supposed to be in the red corner. And where the stove was placed, they did not put anything, since this corner, according to popular beliefs, was intended for a brownie.
In the upper part of the frame, across the hut, there was a uterus - a tetrahedral wooden beam that served as a support for the ceilings. The uterus was cut into the upper crowns of the frame and was often used to hang objects from the ceiling. So, a ring was nailed to it, through which an ochep (flexible pole) of the cradle (unsteadiness) passed. A lantern with a candle was hung in the middle to illuminate the hut, and later a kerosene lamp with a lampshade.
In the rituals associated with the completion of the construction of the house, there was an obligatory treat, which was called "matic". In addition, the laying of the uterus itself, after which there was still a fairly large amount of construction work, was considered as a special stage in the construction of the house and furnished with its own rituals.
In the wedding ceremony for a successful matchmaking, the matchmakers never entered the house for the uterus without a special invitation from the owners of the house. AT in native language the expression "to sit under the womb" meant "to be a matchmaker." The idea of the father's house, luck, happiness was associated with the uterus. So, leaving the house, it was necessary to hold on to the uterus.
For insulation around the entire perimeter, the lower crowns of the hut were covered with earth, forming a mound in front of which a bench was installed. In the summer, old people spent the evening on a mound and a bench. Fallen leaves with dry earth were usually laid on top of the ceiling. The space between the ceiling and the roof - the attic in Saitovka was also called the istka. On it, things, utensils, utensils, furniture, brooms, bunches of grass, etc., were usually stored. The children arranged their simple hiding places on it.
A porch and a canopy were necessarily attached to a residential hut - a small room that protected the hut from the cold. The role of the canopy was varied. This is a protective vestibule in front of the entrance, and additional living quarters in the summer, and a utility room where part of the food supplies were kept.
The heart of the whole house was the oven. It should be noted that the so-called "Russian", or, more correctly, an oven, is a purely local invention and quite ancient. It traces its history back to the Trypillia dwellings. But in the design of the oven itself during the second millennium of our era, very significant changes took place, which made it possible to use fuel much more fully.
Putting together a good oven is not an easy task. At first, a small wooden frame (oven) was installed right on the ground, which served as the foundation of the furnace. Small logs split in half were laid on it and the bottom of the oven was laid out on them - under, even, without tilt, otherwise the baked bread would turn out to be lopsided. Over the hearth of stone and clay, a furnace vault was built. The side of the oven had several shallow holes called stoves, in which mittens, mittens, socks, etc. were dried. In the old days, the huts (smoky ones) were heated in a black way - the stove did not have a chimney. The smoke escaped through a small portage window. Although the walls and ceiling became sooty, this had to be put up with: a stove without a chimney was cheaper to build and required less wood. Subsequently, in accordance with the rules rural improvement, obligatory for state peasants, chimneys began to be removed above the huts.
First of all, the "big woman" stood up - the owner's wife, if she was not yet old, or one of the daughters-in-law. She flooded the stove, opened wide the door and the smoker. Smoke and cold lifted everyone. Small children were put on a pole to warm themselves. Acrid smoke filled the entire hut, crawled up, hung under the ceiling above human height. In an ancient Russian proverb, known since the 13th century, it says: "I could not bear the smoky sorrows, I did not see the heat." Smoked logs of houses rotted less, so chicken huts were more durable.
The stove occupied almost a quarter of the dwelling area. It was heated for several hours, but, having warmed up, kept warm and heated the room during the day. The stove served not only for heating and cooking, but also as a stove bench. Bread and pies were baked in the oven, porridge, cabbage soup were cooked, meat and vegetables were stewed. In addition, mushrooms, berries, grain, and malt were also dried in it. Often in the oven, replacing the bath, steamed.
In all cases of life, the stove came to the aid of the peasant. And it was necessary to heat the stove not only in winter, but throughout the year. Even in summer, it was necessary to heat the oven well at least once a week in order to bake a sufficient supply of bread. Using the ability of the oven to accumulate, accumulate heat, the peasants cooked food once a day, in the morning, left the cooked food inside the ovens until dinner - and the food remained hot. Only in summer late dinner I had to heat up the food. This feature of the oven had a decisive influence on Russian cooking, which is dominated by the processes of languishing, boiling, stewing, and not only peasant, since the lifestyle of many small estate nobles did not differ much from peasant life.
The oven served as a lair for the whole family. On the stove, the warmest place in the hut, old people slept, who climbed there by steps - a device in the form of 2-3 steps. One of the obligatory elements of the interior was the floor - wooden flooring from the side wall of the furnace to the opposite side of the hut. They slept on the floorboards, climbing from the stove, dried flax, hemp, and a splinter. For the day, bedding and unnecessary clothes were thrown there. The shelves were made high, at the level of the height of the furnace. The free edge of the boards was often fenced with low railings, balusters, so that nothing would fall from the boards. Polati were a favorite place for children: both as a place to sleep and as the most convenient observation point during peasant holidays and weddings.
The location of the stove determined the layout of the entire living room. Usually the stove was placed in the corner to the right or left of the front door. The corner opposite the mouth of the furnace was the working place of the hostess. Everything here was adapted for cooking. There was a poker, a tong, a pomelo, a wooden shovel by the stove. Nearby is a mortar with a pestle, hand millstones and a sourdough tub for sourdough dough. They raked the ashes out of the furnace with a poker. With a grip, the cook caught pot-bellied clay or cast-iron pots (cast iron), and sent them to the heat. In a mortar, she crushed the grain, peeling it from the husk, And with the help of a mill, she ground it into flour. A pomelo and a shovel were necessary for baking bread: with a broom, a peasant woman swept under the stoves, and with a shovel she planted a future loaf on it.
A washcloth hung next to the stove, i.e. towel and washbasin. Beneath it was a wooden tub for dirty water. In the oven corner there was also a ship shop (vessel) or a counter with shelves inside, which was used as a kitchen table. On the walls were observers - lockers, shelves for simple tableware: pots, ladles, cups, bowls, spoons. They were made from wood by the owner of the house himself. In the kitchen, one could often see earthenware in "clothing" made of birch bark - economical owners did not throw away cracked pots, pots, bowls, but braided them with strips of birch bark for strength. Above was a stove beam (pole), on which kitchen utensils were placed and a variety of household items were stacked. The sovereign mistress of the stove corner was the eldest woman in the house.
The stove corner was considered a dirty place, unlike the rest of the clean space of the hut. Therefore, the peasants always sought to separate it from the rest of the room with a curtain made of colorful chintz or colored homespun, a tall wardrobe or a wooden bulkhead. Closed, thus, the stove corner formed a small room, which had the name "closet". The stove corner was considered exclusively female space in the hut. During the holiday, when many guests gathered in the house, a second table for women was placed near the stove, where they feasted separately from the men who sat at the table in the red corner. Men, even of their own families, could not enter the women's quarters without special need. The appearance of an outsider there was generally considered unacceptable.
During the matchmaking, the bride-to-be had to be in the stove corner all the time, being able to hear the whole conversation. From the stove corner she came out smartly dressed during the bridegroom - the rite of acquaintance of the groom and his parents with the bride. In the same place, the bride was waiting for the groom on the day of departure down the aisle. In old wedding songs, the stove corner was interpreted as a place associated with the father's house, family, and happiness. The exit of the bride from the stove corner to the red corner was perceived as leaving the house, saying goodbye to him.
At the same time, the stove corner, from where there is an exit to the underground, was perceived at the mythological level as a place where people could meet with representatives of the "other" world. Through the chimney, according to legend, a fiery serpent-devil can fly to a widow yearning for her dead husband. It was generally accepted that on especially solemn days for the family: during the christening of children, birthdays, weddings, deceased parents - "ancestors" come to the stove to take part in an important event in the life of their descendants.
The place of honor in the hut - the red corner - was located obliquely from the stove between the side and front wall. It, like the stove, is an important landmark of the interior space of the hut, well lit, since both of its constituent walls had windows. The main decoration of the red corner was a goddess with icons, in front of which a lamp was burning, suspended from the ceiling, so it was also called "holy".
They tried to keep the red corner clean and smartly decorated. It was cleaned with embroidered towels, popular prints, postcards. With the advent of wallpaper, the red corner was often pasted over or separated from the rest of the hut space. The most beautiful household utensils were placed on the shelves near the red corner, the most valuable papers and items were stored.
All significant events of family life were marked in the red corner. Here, as the main piece of furniture, there was a table on massive legs, on which runners were installed. The runners made it easy to move the table around the hut. It was placed next to the oven when bread was baked, and moved while washing the floor and walls.
Behind him were both everyday meals and festive feasts. Every day at lunchtime, the whole peasant family gathered at the table. The table was big enough for everyone to sit. In the wedding ceremony, the matchmaking of the bride, her ransom from her girlfriends and brother took place in the red corner; from the red corner of her father's house she was taken to the church for the wedding, brought to the groom's house and also led to the red corner. During the harvest, the first and last harvested sheaf was solemnly carried from the field and placed in the red corner.
“The first compressed sheaf was called the birthday man. Autumn threshing began with it, sick cattle were fed with straw, the grains of the first sheaf were considered healing for people and birds. in the red corner under the icons. The preservation of the first and last ears of the harvest, endowed, according to popular beliefs, with magical powers, promised well-being to the family, home, and entire economy.
Everyone who entered the hut first of all took off his hat, crossed himself and bowed to the images in the red corner, saying: "Peace be to this house." Peasant etiquette ordered the guest, who entered the hut, to stay in half of the hut at the door, without going behind the uterus. Unauthorized, uninvited intrusion into the "red half", where the table was placed, was considered extremely indecent and could be perceived as an insult. A person who came to the hut could go there only at the special invitation of the owners. The most dear guests were put in the red corner, and during the wedding - the young ones. On ordinary days, the head of the family sat at the dinner table here.
The last of the remaining corners of the hut, to the left or right of the door, was the workplace of the owner of the house. There was a bench where he slept. Under it, a tool was stored in a box. AT free time the peasant in his corner was engaged in various crafts and minor repairs: weaving bast shoes, baskets and ropes, cutting spoons, gouging cups, etc.
Although most peasant huts consisted of only one room, not divided by partitions, an unspoken tradition prescribed that members of the peasant hut should follow certain accommodation rules. If the stove corner was the female half, then in one of the corners of the house there was a special place for the elder to sleep. married couple. This place was considered honorable.
Shop
Most of the "furniture" was part of the construction of the hut and was motionless. Along all the walls not occupied by the stove, wide benches stretched, hewn from the largest trees. They were intended not so much for sitting as for sleeping. The benches were firmly attached to the wall. Other important pieces of furniture were benches and stools that could be moved freely from place to place when guests arrived. Above the benches, along all the walls, shelves were arranged - "slaves", on which household items, small tools, etc. were stored. Special wooden pegs for clothes were also driven into the wall.
An integral attribute of almost every Saitovka hut was a pole - a bar built into the opposite walls of the hut under the ceiling, which in the middle, opposite the wall, was supported by two plows. The second pole with one end rested against the first pole, and with the other - against the wall. The designated construction in winter time was the support of the mill for weaving matting and other ancillary operations associated with this fishery.
spinning wheel
The special pride of the hostesses was turned, carved and painted spinning wheels, which were usually put in a prominent place: they served not only as a tool of labor, but also as a decoration of the home. Usually, with elegant spinning wheels, peasant girls went to "gatherings" - cheerful rural gatherings. The "white" hut was cleaned with home weaving items. The beds and the couch were covered with colored curtains made of linen checkered. At the windows - curtains made of homespun muslin, the window sills were decorated with geraniums dear to the peasant's heart. The hut was especially carefully cleaned for the holidays: the women washed with sand and scraped white with large knives - "mowers" - the ceiling, walls, benches, shelves, beds.
Peasants kept their clothes in chests. The more wealth in the family, the more chests in the hut. They were made of wood, upholstered with iron strips for strength. Often the chests had ingenious mortise locks. If a girl grew up in a peasant family, then from an early age, a dowry was collected for her in a separate chest.
A poor Russian peasant lived in this space. Often in the winter cold, domestic animals were kept in the hut: calves, lambs, kids, pigs, and sometimes poultry.
The decoration of the hut reflected the artistic taste and skill of the Russian peasant. The silhouette of the hut crowned carved
ridge (ohlupen) and roof of the porch; The pediment was decorated with carved curtains and towels, the planes of the walls - window frames, often reflecting the influence of the city's architecture (baroque, classicism, etc.). The ceiling, door, walls, oven, less often the outer pediment were painted.
Non-residential peasant buildings made up the household yard. Often they were gathered together and placed under the same roof with a hut. They built an economic yard in two tiers: in the lower one there were barns for cattle, a stable, and in the upper one there was a huge sennik filled with fragrant hay. A significant part of the household yard was occupied by a shed for storing working equipment - plows, harrows, as well as carts and sledges. The more prosperous the peasant, the larger was his economic yard.
Separately from the house, they usually put a bathhouse, a well, and a barn. It is unlikely that the baths of that time were very different from those that can still be found now - a small log house,
sometimes without an antechamber. In one corner there is a stove-heater, next to it are shelves or beds on which they steamed. In the other corner is a barrel for water, which was heated by throwing red-hot stones into it. Later, cast-iron boilers began to be built in to heat water in stoves. To soften the water, wood ash was added to the barrel, thus preparing lye. All the decoration of the bath was illuminated by a small window, the light from which was drowned in the blackness of the sooty walls and ceilings, since in order to save firewood the baths were heated "in black" and the smoke came out through the ajar door. From above, such a structure often had an almost flat shed roof, covered with straw, birch bark and turf.
The barn, and often the cellar under it, was placed in plain sight against the windows and at a distance from the dwelling, so that in the event of a fire in the hut, the annual supply of grain would be preserved. A lock was hung on the door of the barn - perhaps the only one in the entire household. In the barn, in huge boxes (bottom boxes), the main wealth of the farmer was stored: rye, wheat, oats, barley. No wonder the village used to say: "What is in the barn, such is in the pocket."
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