One of the most complex and intricate sections in the Russian language is syntax. In particular, these are complex and complex sentences. Today we will talk about what is subordinate clauses.
Definition of subordinate clauses
In a complex sentence, the subordinate clause is called the dependent part. An example can be given as follows: Ivan left the lecture so as not to miss a football match. The second part, beginning with "to", is an adjective complex sentence.
Like the secondary members of sentences, subordinate clauses are divided into four types: explanatory, attributive, adjunctive, adverbial. They will be discussed. So, the types of subordinate clauses.
Determinative clauses
They answer questions of definitions, namely: which one? which? which? which? Their other name is adjectival pronouns. They join with the help of such allied words as “which”, “whose”, “when”, “from where” and others.
Here are a few examples in which we will put the main sentence in square brackets, and the subordinate clause in round brackets: [The alarm clock turned on,] what alarm clock? (which was given to me by my mother). [The school (where I studied) burned to the ground].
Explanatory clauses
Explanatory refers to the verb, and they answer the questions of indirect cases: what? to whom? whom? what? and so on. These subordinate clauses are connected with the main parts of sentences through the allied words who, whose, which, where, where, etc.
Examples: [I know exactly] know what? (that the moon is round). [He understood] understood what? (how many days have passed since the beginning of the school year).
Adverbial clauses
They perform the function of common circumstances, while answering circumstantial questions: where? when? as? etc. [I walked on white snow like that] walked how? (that snowflakes crunched under my feet)
Connecting subordinate clauses
They already refer to the entire main part and are joined by allied words where, what, where, how, why. The adjunctive clauses explain and also supplement the content of the main part and often have the meaning of the consequence.
Examples:
[He was worried] (that's why he couldn't pass the exam well).
[ My sister never opened the outline in all this time] (which bothered me a lot).
Now you know what a clause is, we hope you have learned enough about them to easily identify them in complex sentences.
N.M. Rukhlenko, an author well known to our readers, today offers very interesting material that cannot be regarded as indisputable. The fact is that in the existing tradition there is no clear system for distinguishing between the semantics of attachment, syntactic attachment constructions, and the stylistic device of parceling. Therefore, a rich collection of examples collected by N.M. Rukhlenko, is an occasion for a serious conversation with thinking high school students.
N.M. RUKHLENKO,
S. Orlik,
Belgorod region
Connecting structures
11th grade
Lesson Objectives: reveal the role of connecting structures in speech, identify their expressive and stylistic possibilities, encourage students to actively and creatively use connecting structures in oral and written speech.
DURING THE CLASSES
Teacher. In modern Russian, there are such concepts as accession, connecting connection, connecting unions, connecting constructions. Today's lesson will be devoted to connecting structures. Attachment is a special grammatical and stylistic device, which is associated with a tendency to save speech resources with high informative saturation. Connecting structures are widely used in oral speech. Usually they appear in consciousness not simultaneously with the main thought, but only after it has been expressed; as additional messages, their explanations have to be added to the main statement by means of a connecting link. As L.V. wrote Shcherba, "the second element appears in consciousness only after the first or during its utterance." Accessions are increasingly penetrating into book speech - into the language of fiction, journalistic and popular science articles, newspapers. The additional, clarifying nature of the additions, their location after the main statement makes it possible to update the most important position for the author. We can also say that attachment is one of the types of syntactic connection. Pay attention to the board. Read the examples. Specify connecting structures.
A march broke out in the room. Walking march. So kind and funny. With such grace notes, trills. Because of the same fixed curtain. (K. Fedin)
Both had a favorite place in the garden: a bench under an old wide maple. And now sit down on this bench. (A.Chekhov)
I swore not to say a word out of curiosity. (L. Tolstoy)
It was even scary sometimes. (M. Gorky)
Tasks
1. What place does the connecting construction take in relation to the main statement? (Accession always follows the main statement.)
2. Watch the intonation with which the connecting constructions are pronounced. (After the main utterance, a connecting pause follows, a decrease in voice is noted. The purpose of the pause is to prepare for the perception of the attached element.)
3. Set the difference between the connecting connection from the coordinating and subordinating. (When composing, relatively equal, syntactically homogeneous elements of the utterance are combined, when subordinating one of the elements depends on the other, but in both cases the elements of the utterance “are present in the mind, at least in a vague form, already at the very beginning of the utterance”(Shcherba L.V. About parts of speech in Russian. Selected works on the Russian language. M., 1957. S. 80). Attachments are, as it were, an additional judgment, clarification, explanation, development of a previously expressed thought. A peculiar intonation of attachment creates discontinuity in speech, which also distinguishes these constructions from sentences with composition and subordination, which are characterized by relative fluency.)
4. What is the connection by means of communication with the main offer? (Unionless and allied.)
5. What are connecting structures: a word, a phrase, a sentence? (Attachment can be a word, a phrase, a sentence.)
6. What do the connecting constructions refer to: to a certain word or phrase in the main statement or to the whole statement? (Attachment can refer both to a certain word, phrase, and to the entire statement. At the same time, together with the main statement, the connecting constructions form a syntactic whole, in which the second part is grammatically and in meaning connected with the first, clarifying and explaining it. Breaking away from the main statement , connecting structures receive a special semantic load.)
Teacher. In your opinion, which connecting constructions - unionless or allied - are more closely related to the main statement? Why?
Student. Non-union connecting constructions are more closely related to the main sentence than allied ones, since without the main sentence the attached part is incomprehensible and grammatically independent. The main means of communication in non-union joining is a special joining intonation and a pause.
Teacher. Let's look at the following examples.
1. Well, you see. And suitcases, your things were found. Shirts, suits, alarm clocks. (K.Simonov)
2. The river went crazy from the spring pressure of water. Bubbling. Seething. Required space. (V. Bocharnikov)
3. Elena has a problem here. Big. (F.Panferov)
4. The enthusiasm of Australian farmers is so great that the camel may become a symbol of Australia in the near future. Instead of a kangaroo. (From newspapers)
5. You should catch, young man, with one line. For peace of mind. (K. Paustovsky)
6. Hearing this, I gasped. About myself, of course. (E. Krenkel)
7. And suddenly she wanted to speak. About my life. About secret desires. (V.Toropygin)
8. Let's not disfigure our great, mighty and free Russian language. Neither verbally nor in writing. (From newspapers)
9. Then a duck emerged from the reeds. Elegant, multi-colored and large. Very big. (A. Yashin)
Teacher. What can you say about the structure of unionless connecting structures?
Student. A structurally non-union connecting construction is a member, either main or secondary, that is taken out of the main statement.
Teacher. In these examples, determine which member of the sentence is the connecting construction.
Student. 1st example - subject, 2nd example - predicate, 3rd and 9th examples - definitions, 4th and 7th examples - additions, 5th, 6th and 8th examples - circumstances .
Teacher. Along with non-union in the language there are allied connecting constructions. What are structurally unionless connecting structures, you have already established. And now we will analyze the following examples and say what allied connecting structures can be structurally.
1. I put my head out from above and I see that three whites are coming up to me. And it was reluctant to lose passion. (A. Gaidar)
2. The officer cannot see everything, Yes, the constable does not understand what I understand. (A.Chekhov)
3. Well, and one more detail: I consider you a comrade. Whom I am glad to see both with or without reason. (N. Pochivalin)
4. The radio operator had good taste. And a good hand. (B.Gorbatov)
5. You don't know how I longed to come here. And she was afraid. (V. Panova)
6. We had our own life, it was special with us, at least some, but still it was, and not one negative, but internal. (F. Dostoevsky)
7. Nezhdanov thought so, and he himself did not suspect how much truth was - and lies- in his mind.(I.Turgenev)
8. They wrote about us in the newspapers ... And very abruptly, you know. (M. Gorky)
Student. Unlike non-union connecting constructions, which are any main or secondary member of the sentence, allied connecting constructions can be either one or another member of the sentence, or a simple or complex sentence. In examples 1-3, the attachment represents a sentence (1 - a simple sentence, 2 - a complex sentence, 3 - a subordinate clause of a complex sentence), in examples 4-8 - a separate - main or secondary - member of the sentence (4 - subject, 5 - predicate, 6 - definition, 7 - addition, 8 - circumstance).
Teacher. Which attachment is more dependent on the main statement: an attachment that is a member of a sentence, or an attachment that is a sentence?
Student. The attachment, which is a member of the sentence, is more dependent on the main statement, and the sentence is less dependent.
Teacher. We give a linguistic commentary on the following examples. Establish what meaning this or that union attaches to the statement.
At school, a score is reduced for illiteracy in a written work in physics in exactly the same way as for illiteracy in an essay in literature. And rightly so, otherwise the student will not learn to read and write. (K. Fedin) One must have great powers of observation, a tenacious memory in order to give an accurate portrait of an animal or a bird, and not just a portrait, but a living picture, with the habits and way of life of four-legged and winged heroes. (V. Peskov)
and develop the idea of the main statement, supplementing, clarifying it. The word of the main message repeated in the connecting construction emphasizes the connecting nature of the message, highlights main idea suggestions.
And they would both be very surprised if someone told them that they were friends. And they were friends without knowing it. (L. Tolstoy) It was reported in the letter that Kirill Makurin's cow went for eight, and the hut was described for twelve rubles. And at Batyushkin's, the old woman was taken to the county zemstvo court for a careless word. And at the Matochkins' daughter Feonia, having burned the body, despite the fact that the bride, they whipped a little gooseberries for the insults caused to the guard Lomonosov.(L.Leonov) Bazarov drew a line on the ground with the toe of his boot. - That's the barrier. And by the way: how many steps each of us from the barrier move away? (I. Turgenev) It was at this very time that there lived a governor who did not believe in many things, in which others, by simplicity, believed. And most importantly, he did not understand for what reason the governor's position was established. (M. Saltykov-Shchedrin)
Union a , used in the joining function, has a colloquial character. Connection structure with union a contains a message that continues, develops the idea of the previous sentence. Chain joins with union a give rhythm and expressiveness to the story. With the help of words By the way, the important etc., indicating the nature of the clarification of the previously expressed thought (restriction, distribution, motivation), the connecting meaning of the union is enhanced a.
The heavy sultry air seemed to freeze; a hot face sought the wind, and there was no wind.(M.Turgenev) Poor Nadia has nowhere else to hear those words and no one to speak. them. (A.Chekhov)
Unions yes, yes and have a conversational tone.
When the Germans or the British come together, they talk about the prices of wool, about the harvest, about their personal affairs; but for some reason, when we Russians get together, we only talk about women and lofty matters. But the main thing is about women.(A.Chekhov)
Union but retains its main adversative meaning.
- I, when I'm alone and quiet ... I want to cry all the time ... Or sing along. (M. Gorky) And here it is legitimate to compare Chaliapin with such artists as the great pianist Ferrucho Busoni, who brought his ideas to the interpretation of Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Liszt, Chopin. Or with the violinist Eugene Ysaye. Or with pianist Leopold Godowsky. (I. Andronikov)
Union or messages with a touch of choice, clarifications are attached.
The forces of the Reds were scattered, which was unacceptable in such a swamp and off-road.(A.N. Tolstoy)
With the help of an allied word what messages with the meaning of conclusion, conclusion, additional remarks are attached.
Okay, I'll give you opium, just draw me a beauty. To be a good beauty. To have black eyebrows and eyes as big as olives.(M. Gorky)
Connecting structures with union to contain additional messages of explanatory-target value.
Discussions about the old-fashionedness of the theater and the primacy of the modern arts of cinema and television will inevitably fade away and be forgotten, and the theater will remain theatre. Because the need for direct perception of the creative process will never disappear in a person.(From newspapers)
Union because messages of a causal and explanatory nature are attached.
- No matter how you philosophize, loneliness is a terrible thing, my dear ... Although, in essence, of course, it is absolutely all the same!(A.Chekhov)
concessive union although (though) can also introduce an attachment structure.
“And I like you. For you are moderately smart and moderately stupid; in moderation - kind and in moderation - evil; moderately honest and mean.(M. Gorky)
Union for in the connecting sense gives the narrative an elevated, upbeat tone. Connecting structures with union for contain justification for the previous statement.
Teacher. Read the following group of sentences. Describe the syntactic bonds of connecting constructions.
1. The city will be empty. Just cover it with a cap. (A.Chekhov)
2. Walks something Son of a bitch! As if the owner of the whole earth! It's like he's walking on his own! (M. Sholokhov)
3. I speak clearly. Like an oath. (K. Fedin)
4. For example, you are going to the Volga-Don construction site. Obviously, you will be writing about him? - Yes. If I dare. (K. Paustovsky)
5. He lived in Kyiv for twelve whole years. That's why he speaks Russian so well. (I.Turgenev)
6. What should I say. I know him. Besides, I have a headache today. (I. Turgenev)
7. Take a closer look, choose a business to your liking, and I promise to take into account your inclinations. By the way, we do not yet know these tendencies. (S.Antonov)
Student. In the connecting function, as can be seen from the examples, comparative unions can act (exactly, like, like) conditional alliances (if), adverbs (because, besides) introductory words (by the way).
Teacher. What are the stylistic possibilities of connecting structures? The following examples will help us understand this.
1. It turns out that Christmas tree candles were accidentally found in the closet. Short, multi-colored, similar to sharpened colored pencils. (Yu.Yakovlev)
2. I saw my mother. By the well, with sweaty buckets. In the straw rays of the sun. (Yu.Yakovlev)
3. People of different tastes and generations, who love different music, different genres, different performers, are unanimous in their assessment of Chaliapin. Available. Boldly. Deep. Difficult. Various. (From newspapers)
4. Now in schools, technical schools it has become fashionable to go hiking. On foot. By ski. Bicycles. In boats. Holidays and Sundays. With or without an overnight stay. (From newspapers)
5. I picked up a heavy cold bucket, slowly brought it to my lips and suddenly saw myself as a boy. Clumsy, careless, with a bruise on his forehead, with a peeling nose. (Yu.Yakovlev)
6. I lived at Nagulny, it was somehow uncomfortable there ... What to sew up - it was me myself, and somehow I also washed it myself. And so in general I have not washed since my arrival, this is a fact. And a jersey too... There is no soap in the stall... But the apartment is nothing, there are no children, you can read without interference and in general.(M. Sholokhov)
7. No, I don’t see, here, besides the doctor and medicines, something else is needed. Maybe even stronger than the doctor. A word of some kind, so that he grabs it. Like a blind man for a stick. (N. Pochivalin)
8. You drive, you drive, this eternal forest rumor does not stop, and your heart begins to ache a little, and a person wants to go out into the open as soon as possible, into the light, he wants to breathe deeply - and this odorous dampness and rot crushes him ...(I. Turgenev)
9. I swim in the river, I go skiing, I love flowers. And bees. And the stars in the sky. (V. Soloukhin)
10. I heard and thought that all this is not true. And not ours at all. And it's not autumn yet. And there are no valleys here, but only ravines and birch and oak pegs.(V. Lukashevich)
11. He is musical. He "dances" what he plays. Dancing with hands. head. lips. Whole body. (E. Dorosh)
13. - I wish! he said, twitching his lips vigorously. - Like a traitor! With your own hand! This scoundrel! (M. Bubennov)
14. And nearby stands the empty castle of Kaspar, which they promised to give to the pioneers for a long time, but they can’t disenchant it in any way. “And you should invite Hottabych,” I advised. Turns out they were invited. Arrived from Moscow. On IL-18. Direct flight. (From newspapers)
15. Summer broke in two days. And how golden it was! It got cold right away. The icy north blew through the windows ... And the garden is already farewell, autumn. Rain, fog, cloudy. And the flowers are blooming. Hot batteries, a flooded fireplace, warmth and dryness in the house are already pleasant. And outside the window, wisps of fog. Copper-red vine leaves darkened by pine moisture. Autumn ... My dear pine trees have darkened from the rain, they all stand in the same way in a circular guard, but with the summer calm flies away. Anxiety, worry, sadness. And heartache... Again on the threshold of a disease with the inability to move, to act. And how much I could do and how much I want to do... There are no flowers. Only tobacco holds on without giving up. Yes, large yellow daisies do not recognize frost. But the day is golden, quiet, full of cobwebs and the barely audible murmur of autumn opal.(G. Nikolaeva)
Student. Attaching constructions make it possible to give an extremely capacious, concise description of an object, phenomenon, to concretize and evaluate the previous statement, to introduce certain details, details into the description of the situation (examples 1–4). Connections - effective remedy highlighting the details of the portrait, character (example 5). This is a convenient form of expressing the subtlest shades of experiences, reflections, memories, with the help of attachments one can describe the physical and psychological state of a person (example 15). Chains of connecting constructions (examples 6–13) give the narrative either tension, or rhythm, or smoothness, or abruptness. Particularly expressive are short unionless connecting structures. Sometimes connecting constructions contradict the main statement or create an unexpected transition from one key to another, thereby emphasizing the comedy of the situation, position, etc. (example 14).
Teacher. Okay guys. We have seen that attachments carry a large semantic and expressive load. Now come up with some examples that include connecting structures. Try with these examples to convince us that connecting constructions play a big role in speech (students complete the task).
Teacher. Let's try to analyze the following examples on our own. Make up an answer algorithm based on the theoretical information studied in the lesson.
1. They said that Ilyin was lucky. And indeed, everything turned out surprisingly on time and smoothly. (V.Kaverin)
2. But he, Lisa, is our countryman. Also Volzhan. (E. Ilyina)
3. I have been living with them for eleven years. Like your own. (A.Chekhov)
4. I look, in the eleventh company they teach signals. Chorus. (A. Kuprin)
5. I would like to have at least a wing left. For me. (G. Nikolaeva)
6. In any case, contact me. Any minute. (A. Chakovsky)
7. What do you order the sculptor to do, yes even bad. (I.Turgenev)
8. They were waiting for a little snowy winter. And they didn't guess. (A. Chakovsky)
9. Is it not in vain that they came? Yes, even with knots, with suitcases. (A. Koptyaeva)
10. Everyone was in great confusion, especially my mother. (A. Herzen)
Then the teacher sums up the lesson, puts marks. As homework, students are asked to write an essay on a free topic, including connecting constructions.
Adverbial clauses are very diverse. They differ from each other in four main ways:
grammatical meaning;
the question answered by the subordinate clause;
what it refers to;
means of communication (than joins).
According to these features, four main types of subordinate clauses are distinguished: attributive, explanatory, adverbial, adjunctive.
Clauses
Designate a sign of the subject named in the main sentence; answer the question what? refer to one word in the main clause - to a noun (sometimes to the phrase "noun + demonstrative word"); join with allied words: who, what, whose, which, which, where, where, where, when. At the same time, demonstrative words are often found in the main sentence: that (that, that, those), such, everyone, everyone, any, etc. For example: The forest we entered was extremely old (I. Turgenev); Again I visited that corner of the earth where I spent two imperceptible years as an exile (A. Pushkin).
Clauses of explanatory
Supplement and concretize the meaning of the main sentence; answer questions of indirect cases; refer to one word in the main sentence - a verb with the meaning of speech, thought or feeling (said, asked, thought, remembered, surprised, etc.), nouns (message, request, question, etc.), adjectives (happy, happy , proud, etc.), to adverbs (known, clear, visible, etc.), to phrases (asked about that, a question about that, glad that, etc.); are joined by unions what, to, as if, like others, as well as allied words what, to, why, when, where, where, what for, why, etc. At the same time, in the main sentence, the demonstrative word is often found in different case forms . For example: I believe that a person is the creator of his own happiness (A. Chekhov). Reader, will I tell you where the beauty [Lyudmila] has gone? (A. Pushkin); During the dispute, they did not notice how the red sun set (N. Nekrasov).
Adverbial clauses
Adverbial clauses are very diverse and therefore have their own classification. There are the following types of adverbial clauses: mode of action and degree, place, time, conditions, causes, goals, comparisons, concessions, consequences.
Adventitious mode of action and degree
Designate the image, degree or measure of the action (feature) named in the main sentence; answer questions how? how? in what degree? how much? and etc.; refer to phrases in the main sentence: verb + so; full adjective + such; full adjective + noun + such; are joined by unions what, to, as if, etc. and allied words: how, how much, how much, etc. In the main sentence, there can be demonstrative words: so, so much, so much, to such an extent, such, etc.
Example: I was born in Russia. I love her so much that you can’t say everything in words (S. Ostrovoy). The air is transparent to the point that the beak of a jackdaw is visible ... (A. Chekhov).
adnexal places
Designate the place of action named in the main sentence; answer questions where? where? where?; refer either to the entire main clause or to its predicate; are joined by allied words where, where, from where. In the main sentence, they often correspond to demonstrative words: there, there, from everywhere, everywhere, everywhere, etc.
Example: Go along the free road, where the free mind leads you (A. Pushkin). Where the thicket ended, birches grew white.
Adventitious time
Indicate the time of the action named in the main sentence; answer questions when? how long? since when? How long? and etc.; refer either to the whole main clause or to its predicate. The main sentence often contains demonstrative words: then, now, always, once, sometimes, etc.
Example: While he was singing, the cat Vaska ate all the roast (I. Krylov). Sometimes, when you wander along an unmown fallow, a numerous brood of quails or gray partridges breaks out almost from under your very feet (S. Ognev).
Subordinate conditions
They indicate the condition under which the action named in the main sentence can be carried out; answer the questions under what condition? in which case?; refer either to the entire main clause or to its predicate; are joining conditional alliances if, once, if, if, when (in the meaning of "if"), how (in the meaning of "if"), etc.
Example: If life deceives you, do not be sad, do not be angry (A. Pushkin); When there is no agreement among the comrades, their business will not go well (I. Krylov).
Note
Clauses also have a conditional meaning, in which the predicate is expressed by the verb in the form of an imperative mood, used in the meaning of the conditional: If it weren’t for the Lord’s will, they wouldn’t give up Moscow (M. Lermontov) (cf .: If it weren’t for the Lord’s will, would not give up Moscow).
Adnexal causes
They indicate the reason for what is said in the main sentence; answer questions why? from what? because of which? for what reason?; refer either to the entire main clause, or only to the predicate; are joined by causal unions: since, because, because, etc.
Example: I'm sad because you're having fun (M. Lermontov); The Ossetian cab driver tirelessly drove the horses, as he wanted to climb the Kaurskaya Mountain until nightfall (M. Lermontov).
Adventitious targets
Indicate the purpose of the action named in the main sentence; answer questions why? for what? for what purpose? for what? and etc.; refer either to the entire main clause or to its predicate; are joined by target unions to (to), then to, in order to, etc.
Example: To become a musician, one needs skill (I. Krylov). I want to live in order to think and suffer (A. Pushkin).
Adventitious comparisons
Example: It was quiet for two minutes, as if the convoy had fallen asleep (A. Chekhov). And with a thorny branch, a spruce tree knocks on the window, as a belated traveler sometimes knocks (A. Pleshcheev).
It is necessary to distinguish between subordinate comparisons and comparative turns. Compare: As a tree quietly drops leaves, so I drop sad words (S. Yesenin) (a complex sentence with a comparative clause); Barely noticeable, like drops of silver water, the first stars shone (K. Paustovsky) (comparative turnover).
In a comparative clause, unlike a comparative turnover, there is a grammatical basis.
Introductory sentences should also be distinguished from subordinate comparisons. For example: Yakov, as already mentioned, was aloof from his comrades (I. Turgenev). The highlighted sentence has a grammatical basis, but no comparative meaning.
Adventitious concessions
Indicate the circumstance in spite of which the action named in the main sentence is performed; answer questions no matter what? contrary to what?; refer to the whole main clause or to its predicate; they join with concessive unions: although (even though), despite, let, let, for nothing; despite the fact that, etc., allied combinations: whatever, who, no, no matter how much, when no, no matter how, etc.
Examples: It's hot, although the sun has already set to the west (M. Gorky). Although it is cold, but not hungry (Proverb). Wherever you throw, everywhere is a wedge (Proverb).
It is necessary to distinguish between a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of concession and a simple sentence with a separate circumstance of concession. Compare: Despite the fact that the evening was a success, I did not feel satisfaction (a complex sentence with a concession clause). Despite the success of the evening, I did not feel satisfaction (a simple sentence with the circumstance of concession).
Adnexal consequences
Designate a consequence (conclusion, result) arising from the content of the main sentence; answer the questions what follows from this?; apply to the entire main clause; are joined by conjunctions of consequence so that, therefore.
Example: The wind howls with all its might, so I could not sleep at home (I. Goncharov). The whole next day, Gerasim did not show up, so instead of him the coachman Potap (I. Turgenev) had to go for water.
It is necessary to distinguish between the subordinate consequence and the subordinate mode of action and degree. Compare: The road was washed away by rain, so that wide potholes formed in the mountains (I. Goncharov) (adventitious consequence); The road was washed away by rain so that wide potholes formed along the mountains (an adjunct of the mode of action and degree).
Adventitious connecting
Example: Dew peas shine in the meadows, which happens only in the early morning (A. Chekhov). He had to arrange something in the city, which is why he left in a hurry (A. Pushkin). Instead of sugar, honeycomb was served in a clay bowl, which is why the tea was always liquid, but tasty (K. Paustovsky).
Attaching clauses contain an additional message about the sentence expressed in the main part.
The connecting message may contain an explanation, an assessment of the message given in the main part, a conclusion from it, or additional remarks related to the content of this message, and in the main part of the sentence there are no formal grammatical signs indicating that the subordinate clause follows it (beyond with the exception of intonation incompleteness), that is, it does not need a subordinate clause, but the clause has a formal indicator of subordination - allied word, and its value without the main part is indefinite. This allied word, as it were, contains the content of the previous main part (in whole or in part). In a complex sentence One of the main benefits of hunting, my dear readers, is that it makes you constantly move from place to place, which is very pleasant for an unemployed person.(T.) the first subordinate clause attached by the union what, - explanatory, its necessity is due to the semantic incompleteness of the combination is in the main part. The construction of an explanatory clause is such that it does not necessitate a new clause following it, and the latter has the character of an additional remark about the main statement (assessment of its content). This is the connecting part. The nature of its syntactic relations with the preceding part of the sentence resembles the relationship between the parts of the SSP, as evidenced by the possibility of replacing the allied word what combination and this, which is unacceptable in a subordinate explanatory clause. The proper conjunction is the word and: The dressmaker lost the case, and she not only had to return the money for the costumes, but also forfeit the plaintiff a thousand francs for moral damage(Nab.). In other cases, the subordinating unions and combinations perform the function of connecting.
Attaching relations are expressed using allied words what(in different forms), where, where, from where, when, why, why, why, how.
The allied word is most often used in the joining function what(in various forms): He built a house according to his own plan, started a cloth factory, tripled his income and began to honor himself. smartest person in the whole neighborhood, in which the neighbors did not contradict him ...(P.); ... She [the wolf] mistook a fox track for a dog and sometimes even lost her way, which had never happened to her in her youth.(Ch.).
In subordinate clauses, the intensifying-comparative particle is often used and, emphasizing that the message contained in the subordinate clause is caused precisely by the message contained in the main clause. Wed: One corner of the curtain was slightly turned up, which made it possible to look into the bedroom.(Chekhov) (consequences) and One corner of the curtain was slightly turned up, which made it possible to look into the bedroom.(connecting) .
allied words why, why, why usually combined with union and attach subordinate clauses with causal and target shades of meanings: The goose took another rope in its beak and pulled it, which immediately rang out a deafening shot(Ch.) (causal); My brother had to take the entrance exams to the institute, which is why he came to the city(target) ; It was already getting dark in the forest, which is why I had to return home.(target) .
The least common in subordinate clauses are allied words where, where, where, when and union how, introducing shades corresponding to their lexical meaning: spatial, temporal, comparative. Moreover, their connecting function is revealed only in combination with the next following them and ( where and when and how and): He returned home at exactly five o'clock, when he should have come; ... The truth was that he really lost his senses, as he later admitted(Dost.); Weakened from blood loss, Benny fell on the battlefield, where he was found unconscious.(Lesk.). The connecting clauses, due to the special nature of the connecting relations, are located after the main one or, less often, in the middle. Allowable in some cases, placing them at the beginning of the sentence creates the character of inversion: What often happens in the Indian summer, in the morning the overcast sky began to cheer up in the afternoon, and the soft sun without shadows illuminated the earth(Fed.).
Some adjunctive clauses, as a result of frequent use, have turned into stable turns: which is to be expected; Q.E.D; with which I congratulate you.
Notes:
1. Close to NGN with subordinate clauses with relative pronouns where, where, from where, for which there is a special particle and: He spent two weeks in a hospital in Vladimir, from where he was again sent to the front. However, the relation of the subordinate part not to the entire main or its part, but to a single word, in this case a noun, makes the adjunctive value additional. The main meaning here must be considered, obviously, attributive.
The meanings of a number of constructions with unions are also accompanied by an attaching shade. for, if only, if only, for nothing, so. All these complex sentences are characterized by: 1) the semantic and formal completeness of the main part; 2) the absence of correlative words; 3) obligatory postposition of subordinate clauses (impossibility to use them in preposition). However, the leading one in all these sentences is not the connecting meaning, but the one that is expressed by the lexical meaning of the union: cause, effect, goal, concession.
2. SPP with subordinate clauses are close in meaning to SSP and BSS, which have a pronoun in the second part this is: I raped my feelings, and for this nature took revenge on me(Stanislavsky) (cf.: ... for which nature took revenge on me); He chose one or two advisers among the engineers of the department– this helped him to be known in the eyes of management as a knowledgeable person(Granin) (cf .: ... which helped him to be known in the eyes of management as a knowledgeable person). The proximity of these proposals and NGN with subordinate clauses is explained by the fact that demonstrative pronoun this is, same as relative pronoun what, indicates the content of the first part of the compound sentence. The difference between NGN with subordinate clauses from SSP and BSS with a pronoun this is in the second part lies in the specially connecting meaning of the first; in the degree of connection of parts: in SPP it is large, in SSP it is smaller, in BSS the second part is so independent that it is more often used as a separate sentence: The prisoner began to lag behind. This worried the escort.(Lavrenev).
Connective sentences combine the meaning of equivalence and addition: the first part is semantically complete, autonomous, and the second is an additional message or additional remark related to the content of the first part.
The inclusion of connecting sentences in compound sentences is not entirely indisputable, since they do not fully show the meaning characteristic of the composition. equivalence, similarity. Attached, the second part in some respect "serves", explains the first: The newspapers didn't say anything yes and there were few(M.G.).
Complicated sentences.
If the composition is formed by unions of different semantics, i.e. relations that are different in content are expressed, and at the same time the number of predicative units is more than two, then we are dealing with complicated structure.
3. Complex sentences. Means of communication of the main and subordinate parts. The meaning and use of subordinating conjunctions and allied words.
Complex sentence- this is such a complex sentence, the predicative parts of which are connected by subordinating conjunctions or relative (allied) words. The elementary NGN consists of two unequal predicative parts: the dominant part is the “main clause” and the subordinate (dependent) part is the “subordinate clause.
4. Non-partitioned (single-membered) and dismembered (two-membered) SPP. The subordinate part relative to the main part can perform different functions. If it defines one word form in the main part, then such a function is called conditional. If the subordinate part explains the entire composition of the main part, then it fulfills accessory, primary function.
On this basis, two structural types of a complex sentence are distinguished: 1) undivided(single member) and 2) dissected(two-term) SPP, cf.: From the thought that he was poisoned, he was thrown both into the cold and into the heat.(Ch.); While the Cossacks were putting up a tent and carrying firewood, I managed to run off to hunt.(Ars.).
So, in undivided (one-membered) complex sentences, subordinate clauses are conditional. They explain, characterize in the main part certain words (word forms), indecomposable phrases that need to be extended or specified in meaning. These word forms are called contact words.
The contact words are often nouns and verbs.
Yes, in the proposal There are people who, having just read a book, feel an impatient thirst to immediately talk about what they have read.(Kozhev.) a close relationship is found between the parts: the subordinate part refers to a noun, which needs a mandatory definition (otherwise the main part does not express a complete thought). In a sentence Through the window, I saw a large gray bird perched on a maple branch in the garden.(Paust.) The adnexal part is structurally necessary, because verb saw to which it refers requires clarification.
A subordinate clause may be attached to indecomposable phrase, which needs mandatory distribution: the day before sunk into the head that the experiment might fail.
In the function of contact words, demonstrative pronominal words are used that (that, that, those), such (such, such, such, such (such, such, such, so, there, there, then). All these words contain an indication of the obligation to explain, to new ("upcoming") information. The explanation itself is made out by means of allied words (i.e. relative pronouns and adverbs) [example from account. N.S. Valgina, p.430].
In a sentence That, who experienced a slight dizziness from the first breath of salty and warm air sea coasts, immediately feel the authenticity of Green's landscape(Paust.) demonstrative pronoun that in the main part requires concretization, which is carried out by the subordinate part related to it, attached by a relative pronoun (allied word) who. Wed other examples [from account. Moscow State University, p. 724]: The battle is winning that, who determined to win(L.T.); The maritime profession is still not at all So safe how it is customary to think(Paust.).
So, in all the examples given, the clauses refer to words that need to be extended or concretized in meaning, and the main parts lose their meaning without the clauses.
According to the structure, undivided complex sentences are divided into 3 types: 1) pronominal-correlative; 2) substantive-attributive (terms of N.S. Pospelov); explanatory (the term of V.A. Bogoroditsky and N.S. Pospelov).
Pronominal-correlative sentences characterized by the semantics explanations. The explanatory meaning appears only in combination with a demonstrative word. The index word is official, a binding component, because forms brace together with an allied word or union. These correlative formations are integral and stable: that - that, that - who, such - what, that - which, as much - how much, as much - as far as, there - where, so - how, then - when etc. Wed : What forget to do man then nature will take care of him(Brodsk.); The master in Tolstoy was just so many , How many needed for thugs(M.G); There ,where last year there was rye, now mowed oats lay in rows(Ch.); I just that love flower, which the rooted in the ground(Ec.). Explanatory meaning appears only in combination with a demonstrative word; this meaning is determined by the question "namely?"
The formal and semantic connection between the main and subordinate parts in pronominal-correlative sentences is the closest of all types of connection in undivided sentences; both predicative parts are semantically non-autonomous [ac. Moscow State University, p. 725 - 726].
At pronominal-union connection the meaning of the explanation is complemented by a shade consequences: uncut meadows So fragrant, what out of habit foggy and heavy head(Paust.); A piece of the autumn sky outside the window was so flowing and blue as if summer was still shining outside(Paust.); It was So quiet, what a rare drop of drops was heard from overhanging branches(I. Bunin). .
Substantive-attributive sentences- these are undivided sentences in which the subordinate part is connected with noun word form in the main part, which can perform any syntactic function and occupy any place in it, for example: Room, where lay Ilya Ilyich, at first glance seemed beautifully tidied up(Gonch.); To phenomena, which I do not understand, I approach cheerfully and do not obey them(Ch.); Chichikov, for sure, saw lady, which he did not notice at all, bowing at the door with Manilov(G.); I entered yesterday in green paradise,where peace for body and soul under a tent of shady poplars(Ahm.); This is how Kasatsky lived in first monastery , where enrolled, seven years(L.T.); Spring washed away the bitter ashes foci, what warmed us(TV . ).
The verbal connection of the subordinate part with the contact word (noun) is formed by allied words: relative pronouns (in the given examples: which, which, which) and pronominal adverbs (in the given examples: where, where).
It is the verbal connection of the contact noun and the allied word that forms attributive (defining) relations, on the basis of which the subordinate clause (in any of its forms and semantics) is interpreted as definitive. Clauses are connected with contact nouns only through allied (relative) words which, what, whose; what; when, where, where, from where. Conjunctions in this kind of sentences not used. The main allied word - which the. It has a common meaning, and all other allied words can be replaced by it.
Explanatory sentences. The structure of explanatory complex sentences is determined valency of contact words, the need for their dissemination. Contact words are represented by three groups of word forms: 1) verb forms ( says, asks, thinks, hears, assures, asks and etc.); 2) substantive word forms ( thought, hearing, assurance, request, news and etc . ); 3) predicatives ( known, understandable, pleasant; sure, happy, surprised and etc.).
[The general semantics of contact words, which motivates their valence, can be defined as "explanation", speaking, reasoning, i.e. speech, thought, feeling, will, perception, evaluation, attitude . Contact words of this semantics have subjective and object valence. As part of a phrase and simple sentence it is realized by the corresponding case forms: talks about the weather, feels tired, sure of victory; I think, I prefer, I hope, I see, I hear, I demand; I am pleased, heard, seen, ashamed, known, I want, it seems, it seems etc.]
As part of a complex sentence, the compatibility of the contact words of "explanatory semantics" is realized with the help of the subordinate clause: Easily imagine, which Alexei had to make an impression in the circle of our young ladies(P); You yourself you know for a long time, what it's no wonder to love you(P.); In a minute was heard, what someone ran in a hurry into the canopy(G.); suddenly spread hearing, what the master returns(T.); Scattered all over the country rumor, what former ruler of the Emerald City lives in the sun(A. Volkov); I glad, what we met with you.
The subordinate explanatory part joins the main explanatory unions what, like, as if, to, whether, as well as allied words (relative pronouns and pronominal adverbs): Nobody did not know, how the conference session ends(A. T.); I want you tell, which a change has taken place in me...(Ch.); I asked at the cuckoo How many years I will live(Ahm.).
By means of strengthening the connection of the subordinate part with the main correlating pronominal element then at the contact word: think about - think about volume, what etc.
Dissected complex sentences
In dissected NGN, there is no and cannot be a verbal connection, the main and subordinate parts correlate as a whole, therefore such sentences are also called binomial, and the subordinate part is called main. An important feature of these proposals is the use as a means of communication only subordinating conjunctions. All conjunctions are specialized for expressing certain relations between predicative parts, therefore they are characterized as semantic.
The types of dissected SPP, according to the Russian grammatical tradition, are indicated through the names of subordinate clauses. There are dissected SPP with subordinate clauses:
temporary ( main union when; conjunctions for expression simultaneity: while, while, while and etc.; precedence: before, before, until and others, including immediate precedence: just a little, just a little, just a little and etc.; succession: after. The group of temporary alliances is the largest and continues to grow.): The sun was already high when i opened my eyes(Garsh.); When Maria arrived, Samghin met her with joy(M.G.); Boris noticed the excited face of Arakcheev, while the sovereign went with Balashev(L.T.); Bye young, strong, cheerful, do not get tired of doing good!(Ch.); Before as enroll in military school, Arkasha fell seriously ill(Cupr.); Once morning came, the singing of doors was heard throughout the house(G.);
comparative(conjunctions: while, meanwhile, how, then how, if .. then, than ... that, as long as ... then): If a in the division and corps, Travkin's data was perceived as an event of special importance, then for the army headquarters, they were already shallow, although important, but by no means decisive(Cossack.); Gerasim remained motionless, his mighty arms folded on Mumu's back, while the boat was gradually carried back to the shore by the wave(T.); Let The Volga is an elegant modest sad beauty, but Yenisei - a mighty, frantic hero(Ch.); How higher you rose on the ground, - topics you are more visible to people on earth(S. Ostrovoy);
conditional(conjunctions: if (then), if, if, when): If play is bad then no game will make it good(Ch.); Kohl you are an old man, you will be our uncle forever(P.);
causal(because, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, as a result of the fact that, due to the fact that, because, due to the fact that, due to the fact that and etc.): There must have been a moon behind the clouds, because windows and snow on the frames were clearly visible(Ch.); Thanks to the summer is very hot and dry, every tree had to be watered(Ch.); I wanted to believe for books have already inspired me to believe in man(M.G.);
investigative(so - the subordinate clause with this union is always in postposition;[ on account of which, on account of which, on account of which, on account of which and others - clauses with these prepositional-case forms acquire the character of attachment, A.N. Gvozdev, L.L. Kasatkin, E.V. Klobukov, P.A. Lekant such subordinate clauses are classified as subordinate clauses]): The peacock dropped the bread into the water, so we had to go to bed with an empty stomach(M.-S.); The courier stood at station ten Where minutes so every moment was precious(B. Ak.); The boy stood out with brilliant abilities and great pride, as a result he was the first in science, and in the front and horseback riding(L.T.);
targeted(so that (obsolete); in order to, in order to, for the purpose of): To Dunyashka did not see her tears, Ilyinichna turned to the wall and covered her face with a handkerchief(Sh.); At the end of the work, Peter took out a pocket book, so that check whether everything he has planned for this day has been fulfilled(P.); He preferred to walk in the line so that not to be separated from your dear neighbor(P.),
concessive(conjunctions: although, in spite of the fact that, even though; pronoun-union combinations no matter how much and etc.): Tikhon Petrovich was sitting on the deck, although it was cold on the water(Paust.); No, you won't be enough for everyone though what kind of general are you(TV); Although it was cold, the snow on the collar melted very soon(L.T.); He was clearly visible for nothing that riding in the shade(T.); And how would you neither in a hurry to get to the water as soon as possible, anyway, on the descent you will stop several times(Paust); Mikhalevich left the next day, no matter how kept him Lavretsky(T.); Let a wall drowned in roses sheltered from distant grief, the nightingale song is not free to drown out the rumble of the sea(Bl.). Relative clauses attached by pronoun-combinations wherever, wherever, whenever, whoever etc., have a generalized identification (Moscow State University school) or a generalized concession (N.S. Valgina and others) meaning:
comparative(as, as if, as if, just like): Similar to an impatient young man is waiting for the hour of a date, I expected the hour of the night(Bulg.); Even strange, the pen does not rise at all, just like there's some lead in it(G.); Cool summer has come like new life started(Ahm.).
A special type of NGN, which does not apply to either unpartitioned or divided ones, is NGN with subordinate clauses. connecting. The subordinate part in them is connected with the main allied word what in various forms. The content of the subordinate part is drawn up as an additional one, as a remark about what was said in the main part. The adnexal just after the main part. union word ( what in various forms) is not only a brace, but also has a demonstrative meaning close to ‘this’: Sometimes a gusty wind arose, what it was worse(S.-Ts.) - cf .: and that was worse; She [wolf] mistook a fox track for a dog track and sometimes even lost her way, what never happened to her when she was young(Ch.); It was dark in the forest why and had to return home.
5. Complicated complex sentences. Parallel subordination of parts, homogeneous subordination, sequential subordination. punctuation marks in complex sentence.
The term "complex sentence", strictly speaking, refers only to a two-component complex sentence, consisting of a main part and a subordinate clause. This is an elementary NGN: the subordinating relationship is realized only once; one allied means is used - a union or an allied word. Complicated SPP is a complex sentence with several subordinate clauses. For example: Samghin felt what it was a soft weight that fell on him, flattening him to the ground so knees buckled(M.G.) - here the undivided subordinating structure (explanatory and pronominal-union) is implemented twice, twice in different meanings union used what.
The variety of complicated NGNs is created not by the number of parts, but by the way they are connected.
Sequential submission (chain connection)- this is such a connection when the subordinate clause (1st degree) is subordinate to the independent main part, and each subsequent clause is connected to the previous one (2nd degree, etc.): Often in autumn I watched the falling leaves closely, to catch that imperceptible fraction of a second when the leaf separates from the branch and begins to fall to the ground(Paust.); Aunt [dog] closed her eyes, to fall asleep faster because she knew from experience what the sooner you fall asleep, the sooner the morning will come(Ch.).
At subordination (parallel connection) All subordinate clauses are subject to one main part. At the same time, they can be both heterogeneous, heterogeneous, and homogeneous, interconnected by a compositional connection: Bye Shamokhin said, I noticed what the Russian language and the Russian environment gave him great pleasure(Ch.); Make the cities to they could be proud to one could work, think and rest in them…(paust.)
The most complex is the structure of NGN with several subordinate clauses, when both types of communication are implemented at once: I'm quite sure what this lord has something very funny, what he is ashamed what secretly tortures him and from what he writes his books so viciously(M.G.); Not even a minute passed how this joy ... also instantly passed, as if she was not there at all, and his face again assumed a caring expression(G.).
6. Unionless complex sentences: the concept of BSP; means of communication of parts of the BSP; BSP types depending on the structure and meaning. Punctuation in BSP.
Associative compound sentence- one of the two main structural types of a complex sentence in Russian, which is distinguished by a formal criterion. In the BSP, in the absence of conjunctions, other means of connecting predicative parts work: intonation, the ratio of species-temporal verb forms, lexical indicators, etc. A simple sentence is a structural element of the BSP. For example: The rod bent into an arc, the fishing line crashed into the water with a whistle(Paust.). The connection of the predicative parts here is carried out through a) the intonation of the enumeration, b) the ratio of species-temporal forms (sequence), as well as the parallel structure of the parts.
The BSP expresses the relations common to the Russian syntax equivalence / unequal, which in allied joint ventures are transmitted by coordinating (equivalence) and subordinating (unequal) unions. Unions in BSP can be inserted, cf .: The mauve tones of the sands faded,[and] the desert was getting dark(Veresaev): [if]There is no penny in the ruble, and the ruble is not full(last); Dust and the smell of fresh milk hung over the village streets -[because/because]cows were brought from the forest glades(Paust.); And it seems from a distant path -[as if]the ox shakes the shore(Es.).
In the BSP are expressed different kinds relations by various indicators, they are characterized by a different number of parts, openness / closeness of the structure; In these sentences, precise punctuation is very important.
Equivalence relations transferred as an enumeration.
At enumeration the structure is open, the number of predicative parts is not limited. Relationships are formed with intonation(uniform rise in tone towards the end of each part, the same position of phrasal stress) , the ratio of verb forms, the parallelism of the structure of parts. The meaning of equivalence is reinforced by the same type of structure of predicative parts. Commas are used in writing. For example: It was raining, snow was falling, frost was crackling, a blizzard howled and whistled(M.G.); Dawns have become foggy, mornings are thoughtful, days are anxiously sensitive, nights are gloomy.(Shishk.); Thick dew lay on the crumpled grass, heavy drops fell from linden leaves.(A.T.); The gates are tightly locked, the evening is black, the wind is quiet(Ahm.).
At comparison closed structure ( two parts). The intonation of opposition is conveyed by a large difference between the parts in pitch. Relationships of opposition are reinforced by the use of antonymous vocabulary or the contrast of affirmation/negation. On a letter basic punctuation mark - dash, compare: Summer heat was scorching outside - it was cool in the house(Bunin); But now there is no house, no boy, no cat - there is a factory in the field(Guide.); Half of the yard in the shade, half illuminated(Bunin); My soul is killed - it remains to kill the body(Sharp); Everything around quickly turned black and subsided - some quails occasionally screamed(T.).
Relationships of disequilibrium are manifested in the fact that one part of the sentence explains the other in one way or another; closed structure ( two parts). The most typical relationship explanatory, conditional, causal.
Explanation may affect the first part as a whole or a separate word. These relations are conveyed by a special, “warning” intonation. On a letter basic sign - colon, but a dash is also possible: That voice meant only one thing: other people need your immediate, urgent help.(Soloukhin); Each corpse sat separately, on its own: neither a fence around, nor a gate was noticed(T.); Since ancient times, labor has been divided: cities are surrendered by soldiers, generals take them(TV); The house also lived: it creaked, rustled, crackled, shuddered slightly from the cold.(Yu. Kazakov).
Conditional Relationships expressed by a characteristic intonation: the contrast of the parts of the sentence in pitch (a very high melodic peak in the first part). On a letter basic punctuation mark - dash: They go ahead - they do not spare hair(last); They cut the forest - chips fly(last).
causal relationship (reason / reason - in the second part) are based on an intonation similar to the explanatory one. Basic punctuation mark - colon, but possibly a dash, cf.: Only during the day it was quiet in the garden: restless birds flew south(Paust.); But I rarely and reluctantly went into this room: for some reason my breath was choking there.(T.); It’s better not to go fishing with an envious person - he still won’t peck(Paust.); Only for Stepan Astakhov no one cried - there was no one(Sh.).
Connecting relations are a special kind of relationship, which is characterized by additionality; parts of the sentence are autonomous, have complete semantics and structure. This type of proposal occupies, as it were, an intermediate place between equivalent and unequal BSPs. As a rule, they do not allow the insertion of either a coordinating or subordinating conjunction.
In writing, the parts of the sentence are separated semicolon or colon. Semicolon emphasizes the independence, autonomy of the first part, and colon- incompleteness, the need to develop a message, cf .: The war time dragged on for a long time; seemed to have no end(Paust.); Litvinov went into his room: the letter on the table caught his eye(T.)