Correlation between the concepts of "learning", "teaching" and "teaching"
Doctrineis defined as the learning of a person as a result of a purposeful, conscious appropriation by him of the transmitted (translated) socio-cultural (socio-historical) experience and the individual experience formed on this basis. Therefore, teaching is considered as a kind of learning.
Education
in the most common sense of this term, it means a purposeful, consistent transfer (transmission) of socio-cultural (socio-historical) experience to another person in specially created conditions. From a psychological and pedagogical point of view, learning is seen as managing the process of accumulating knowledge, forming cognitive structures, as organizing and stimulating the student's educational and cognitive activity.
In addition, the concept of "learning" and "teaching" is equally applicable to humans and animals, in contrast to the concept of "teaching". In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is used as an equivalent of "learning". If "teaching" and "teaching" denote the process of acquiring individual experience, then the term "learning" describes both the process itself and its result.
Scientists interpret this triad of concepts in different ways. For example, the points of view of A.K. Markova and N.F. Talyzina are.
A.K. Markov:
o considers learning as an acquisition of individual experience, but first of all pays attention to the automated level of skills;
o interprets learning from a generally accepted point of view - as a joint activity of a teacher and a student, ensuring the assimilation of knowledge by students and mastering the methods of acquiring knowledge;
o teaching is presented as a student's activity in acquiring new knowledge and mastering ways of acquiring knowledge.
N.F. Talyzina adheres to the interpretation of the concept of "learning" that existed in the Soviet period - the application of the concept under consideration exclusively to animals; learning is considered by it only as the activity of the teacher in organizing the pedagogical process, and teaching - as the activity of the student included in the educational process.
Thus, the psychological concepts of "learning", "training", "teaching" cover a wide range of phenomena associated with the acquisition of experience, knowledge, skills, abilities in the process of active interaction of the subject with the objective and social world - in behavior, activity, communication.
The acquisition of experience, knowledge and skills occurs throughout the life of an individual, although this process proceeds most intensively during the period of reaching maturity. Consequently, the learning processes coincide in time with the development, maturation, mastery of the forms of group behavior of the object of study, and in humans - with socialization, the development of cultural norms and values, and the formation of personality.
So, learning/teaching/teaching
- this is the process of acquiring by the subject of new ways of carrying out behavior and activities, their fixation and / or modification. The most general concept denoting the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth) is "learning". Teaching a person as a result of purposeful, conscious appropriation of the socio-historical experience transmitted to him and the individual experience formed on this basis is defined as teaching.
Theories of learning.
T. n. strive to systematize the available facts about learning in the simplest and most logical way and direct the efforts of researchers in the search for new and important facts. In the case of T. n., these facts are associated with conditions that cause and maintain a change in behavior as a result of the body's acquisition of individual experience. Despite the fact that some differences between T. n. caused by variations in the degree of importance they attach to certain facts, most of the differences are due to disagreements about how best to interpret the total body of evidence available. Theoret. an approach that calls itself an experiment. analysis of behavior, trying to systematize the facts on a purely behavioral level, without k.-l. appeal to hypothetical processes or physiology. manifestations. However, pl. theorists do not agree with the interpretations of learning, which are limited only to the behavioral level. Three things are often mentioned in this connection. First, the time interval between behavior and its premises can be quite large. To fill this gap, some theorists have suggested the existence of hypothetical phenomena such as habits or memory processes that mediate the observed premise and subsequent actions. Second, we often behave in different ways in conditions that outwardly look like the same situation. In these cases, unobservable states of the organism, often referred to as motivations, are invoked as hypothetical explanations for the observed differences in behavior. Finally, thirdly, a complex evolutionary and individual history of development makes it possible for highly organized reactions to appear in the absence of observable intermediate, transitional forms of behavior. In such circumstances, the previous external conditions necessary for the emergence of a habit, and the events that occur between the occurrence of a problem and the appearance of a response to it, are inaccessible to observation. In conditions of limited knowledge about events that precede the observed behavior, and a lack of knowledge about intermediate physiologists. and nervous processes, unobservable cognitive processes are involved in order to explain behavior. Owing to these three circumstances, the majority of T. n. suggest the existence of unobservable processes - commonly referred to as intermediate variables - which wedged between observable environmental events and behavioral manifestations. However, these theories differ as to the nature of these intermediate variables. Although T. n. consider a wide range of issues, this discussion will focus on one topic: the nature of reinforcement. Experimental analysis of behavior In behavior analysis, two procedures are recognized by which behavior change can be induced: respondent conditioning and operant conditioning. With respondent conditioning - more often called in other theories. contexts by classical or Pavlovian conditioning - an indifferent stimulus is regularly followed by another stimulus that already causes a reaction. As a result of this sequence of events, the first, previously ineffective, stimulus begins to produce a reaction, which may bear a strong resemblance to the reaction caused by the second stimulus. Although respondent conditioning plays an important role in learning, especially in emotional responses, most learning is related to operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, a response is followed by a specific reinforcement. The response on which this reinforcement depends is called an operant, since it acts on the environment in order to cause this reinforcement. Operant conditioning is thought to play a more important role in humans. behavior, since, by gradually modifying the reaction, reinforcement is associated with a cut, new and more complex operants can be developed. This process is called operant generation. In the experiment In the analysis of behavior developed by B. F. Skinner, reinforcement is simply an irritant, which, when included in the system of connections determined by the use of respondent or operant procedures, increases the likelihood of behavior being formed in the future. Skinner studied the value of reinforcement for humans. behavior in a much more systematic way than any other theorist. In his analysis, he tried to avoid the introduction of c.-l. new processes that are inaccessible to observation in the conditions of laboratory experiments on animal learning. His explanation of complex behavior rested on the assumption that the often observable and subtle behaviors of humans follow the same principles as fully observable behaviors. Theories of Intermediate Variables supplemented the Skinner experiment. analysis of environmental and behavioral variables by intermediate variables. Intermediate variables yav-Xia theoret. constructs, the value of which is determined through their relationship with a variety of environmental variables, whose general effects they are designed to summarize. Tolman's expectation theory. Thorndike, influenced by Darwin's premise of the continuity of evolution biologist. species, began the transition to a less mentalistic psychology. John B. Watson completed it with a complete rejection of mentalistic concepts. Acting in line with the new thinking, Tolman replaced the old speculative mentalistic concepts with logically defined intermediate variables. As far as the subject of our discussion is concerned, here Tolman did not follow Thorndike's example. Thorndike considered the consequences of the response to be of the utmost importance in strengthening the association between stimulus and response. He called this the law of the effect, which was the forerunner of the modern. reinforcement theory. Tolman believed that the consequences of the reaction do not affect learning as such, but only the external expression of the processes underlying learning. The need to distinguish between learning and performance arose in the course of attempts to interpret the results of experiments on latent learning. As the theory has developed, the name of Tolman's intermediate learning variable has been changed several times, but the most appropriate name would probably be expectation. Anticipation depended solely on the temporal sequence—or contiguity—of events in the environment, not on the consequences of the response. Physiological theory of Pavlov. For Pavlov, as for Tolman, the contiguity of events was a necessary and sufficient condition for learning. These events are physiologist. are presented by the processes proceeding in those areas of a bark of a brain, to-rye are activated by indifferent and unconditioned irritants. The evolutionary consequences of the learned reaction were recognized by Pavlov, but not tested in experiments. conditions, so their role in learning has remained unclear. Molecular theory of Gasri. Like Tolman and Pavlov, and unlike Thorndike, Edwin R. Ghazry considered contiguity to be a sufficient condition for learning. However, coincident events were not determined by such broad events in the environment as Tolman claimed. Each molar environmental event, according to Gasri, consists of many molecular stimulus elements, to-rye he called signals. Each molar behavior, which Gasri called "action", in turn consists of many molecular reactions, or "movements". If the signal is combined in time with the movement, this movement becomes completely conditioned by this signal. Behavioral action learning develops slowly only because most actions require learning many of their constituent movements in the presence of many specific cues. Hull's drive reduction theory. The use of intermediate variables in learning theory reached its widest development in the work of Clark L. Hull. Hull made an attempt to develop a common interpretation of the behavioral changes resulting from both classical and operant procedures. Both the conjugation of stimulus and response and the reduction of drive were included as necessary components in Hull's concept of reinforcement. Fulfillment of learning conditions affects the formation of an intermediate variable - habits. Habit was defined by Hull as a theory. a construct summarizing the overall effect of a set of situational variables on a set of behavioral variables. Relationships between situational variables and an intermediate variable, and further between habit and behavior, were expressed in the form of algebraic equations. Despite the use in formulating some of his intermediate variables, the physiologist. terms, experiment. research and Hull's theory were exclusively concerned with the behavioral level of analysis. Kenneth W. Spence, Hull's collaborator, who made a significant contribution to the development of his theory, was particularly thorough in defining intermediate variables in purely logical terms. Subsequent development Although none of these theories of intermediate variables retained their significance in the second half of the 20th century, the subsequent development of T. n. influenced by two key features. All subsequent theories, as a rule, relied on mat. apparatus and considered a strictly defined range of phenomena - that is, they were "miniature" theories. Hull's theory was the first step towards creating a quantitative theory of behavior, but its algebraic equations served only to briefly formulate the basics. concepts. The first ones are really mate. T. n. were developed by Estes. Dr. quantitative theories, instead of using probability theory and mat. statistics, relied mainly on the theory of information processing. or computer models. Within the framework of theories of intermediate variables, the most significant contribution to the development of the reinforcement principle was made by empirical research. Leona Karnin and related theorists. works by Robert Rescola and Alan R. Wagner. In the procedure of classical conditioning, an indifferent stimulus combined with c.-l. other effective reinforcement, does not acquire control over the reaction if an indifferent stimulus is accompanied by another stimulus, which already causes this reaction. At the behavioral level, a certain discrepancy between the response elicited by the reinforcer and the response that occurs during the presentation of this indifferent stimulus must be complemented by similarity if we want learning to occur. In addition, the nature of this discrepancy must be precisely determined. In terms of experiments. behavior analysis theoret. work mzh acquired more mat. character, although ch. arr. deterministic rather than probabilistic systems. Theoret. research here they developed in the direction from the analysis of a single reinforced reaction to many others. reinforced responses and the interaction of reinforced responses with other responses. In the broadest sense, these theories describe various reinforcers as causes that cause a redistribution of the body's responses within the range of possible behavioral alternatives. The redistribution that has taken place minimizes the change in the current reaction up to the establishment of a new operant contingency and is sensitive to the instantaneous value of the probability of reinforcement for each reaction. There are reasons to believe that the work carried out by representatives of the theory of intermediate variables in the field of classical conditioning and experiments. analysts in the field of operant conditioning, leads to a common understanding of reinforcement, in which behavior is modified in order to minimize the network of discrepancies associated with the action of all excitatory stimuli present in a given environment.
Types of learning in humans
1. Learning by mechanism imritinga , i.e. rapid, automatic adaptation of the organism to the specific conditions of its life using forms of behavior practically ready from birth. The presence of imriting unites a person with animals that have a developed central nervous system. For example, as soon as a newborn touches the mother's breast, he immediately manifests an innate sucking reflex. As soon as the mother duck appears in the field of view of the newborn duckling and begins to move in a certain direction, so, standing on its own paws, the chick automatically begins to follow her everywhere. This is - instinctive(i.e., unconditionally reflex) forms of behavior, they are quite plastic for a certain, usually very limited, period (“critical” period), subsequently they are not very amenable to change.
2. Conditioned Reflex Learning - a conditioned stimulus is associated by the body with the satisfaction of the corresponding needs. Subsequently, conditioned stimuli begin to play a signal or indicative role. For example, a word as some combination of sounds. Associated with the selection in the field of view or holding an object in the hand, it can acquire the ability to automatically call up in the mind of a person the image of this object or movement aimed at searching for it.
3. operant learning Knowledge, skills and abilities are acquired by the so-called trial and error method. This type of learning was identified by the American behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner in addition to conditioned reflex learning. Operant learning is based on active actions ("operations") of the organism in the environment. If some spontaneous action turns out to be useful for achieving the goal, it is reinforced by the achieved result. A pigeon, for example, can be taught to play ping-pong if the game becomes a means of obtaining food. Operant learning is implemented in the system of programmed learning and in the token system of psychotherapy.
4. vicarious learning - learning through direct observation of the behavior of other people, as a result of which a person immediately accepts and assimilates the observed forms of behavior. This type of learning is partially represented in higher animals, such as monkeys.
5. verbal learning - the acquisition of new experience by a person through language. In this case, we mean learning that is carried out in symbolic form through diverse sign systems. For example, symbolism in physics, mathematics, computer science, musical literacy.
The first, second and third types of learning are characteristic of both animals and humans, and the fourth and fifth - only for humans.
If the learning conditions are specifically organized, created, then such an organization of learning is called learning. Training is broadcast a person of certain knowledge, skills, abilities. Knowledge, skills and abilities are the forms and results of reflective and regulatory processes in the human psyche. Therefore, they can arise in a person's head only as a result of his own activities, i.e. as a result of the mental activity of the student.
Thus, education - the process of interaction between the teacher (teacher) and the student (student), as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge, skills and abilities.
Knowledge, skills and abilities will be formed only if the influence of the teacher causes a certain physical and mental activity.
Teaching (learning activity)- this is a special type of cognitive activity of the subject, performed in order to acquire a certain composition of knowledge, skills, intellectual skills.
The structure of learning activities.
Target- mastering the content and methods of teaching, enriching the personality of the child, i.e. the assimilation of scientific knowledge and relevant skills.
motives- this is what encourages learning, overcoming difficulties in the process of mastering knowledge; sustainable internal psychological reason behavior, actions, activities.
Classification of motives for teaching:
Social : the desire to acquire knowledge, to be useful to society, the desire to earn the praise of the teacher, the desire to earn the respect of comrades, the avoidance of punishment.
cognitive : orientation to mastering new knowledge, orientation to the learning process (the child finds pleasure in activity in this type of activity, even if it does not immediately bring certain results), result orientation (the child tries in the lesson to get "10", although the subject itself he is not interested).
Emotional: emotional interest.
What are the main motives learning activities of six-year-olds? Research shows that dominance children of this age have motives for learning that lie outside the educational activity itself. Most children are attracted by the opportunity to fulfill their needs in recognition, communication, self-affirmation. At the beginning of the school year, motives associated with learning itself, learning, have little weight. But by the end of the school year, there are more children with this type of learning motivation (obviously, under the pedagogical influence of a teacher, educator). However, the researchers warn: it is too early to calm down. Cognitive motives six-year-olds are still extremely unstable, situational. They need constant, but indirect, unobtrusive reinforcement.
It is important for the teacher to maintain and increase the interest of children in school. It is important for him to know what motives are most significant for the child at this stage in order to build his education with this in mind. Recall that a learning goal that is not related to motives that are relevant to the child, that has not touched his soul, is not kept in his mind, and is easily replaced by other goals that are more consonant with the child’s habitual motives.
Since at the age of six, the internal, cognitive motivation for learning is just being formed and the will (so necessary in learning) is not yet sufficiently developed, it is advisable to maintain the maximum variety of motives for learning (its polymotivation) when teaching children at school. Children need to be motivated- playful, competitive, prestigious, etc. - and emphasize it to a greater extent than is currently done in teaching six-year-olds.
learning task- this is what the child must master.
Learning action- these are changes in the educational material necessary for the child to master it, this is what the child must do in order to discover the properties of the subject that he is studying.
Learning action is formed on the basis of mastering ways of teaching (operational side of the doctrine) – these are practical and mental actions with the help of which the student masters the content of the teaching and at the same time applies the acquired knowledge in practice.
Practical actions - (actions with objects) - with images of objects, diagrams, tables and models, with handouts
mental actions : perceptual, mnemonic, mental (analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, etc.), reproductive - according to given patterns, methods (reproducing), productive - creating a new one (carried out according to independently formed criteria, own programs, new ways, new a combination of means), verbal - a reflection of the material in the word (designation, description, statement, repetition of words and statements), i.e. performing an action in a speech form, imaginative (aimed at creating images of the imagination).
To learn successfully, a child needs certain skills (automated ways to perform actions) and skills (a combination of knowledge and skills that ensure the successful performance of an activity). Among them - specific skills and abilities necessary for certain lessons (addition, subtraction, phoneme selection, reading, writing, drawing, etc.). But along with them, special attention should be paid to generalized skills that are needed in any lesson, lesson. These skills will be fully developed later, but their beginnings appear already at preschool age.
Action of control (self-control) - this is an indication of whether the child correctly performs an action corresponding to the model. This action should be performed not only by the teacher. Moreover, he must specifically teach the child to control his actions, not only according to their final result, but also in the course of achieving it.
Assessment action (self-assessment)- determination of whether the student has achieved the result or not. Result educational activity can be expressed by: the need to continue learning, interest, satisfaction from learning or unwillingness to learn, negative attitude towards educational institution, avoidance of studies, non-attendance of classes, leaving the educational institution.
Learning and its main components. Learnability – this is a set of fairly stable and widely manifested features of the child's cognitive activity, which determine success, i.e. speed and ease of assimilation of knowledge and mastery of methods of teaching.
Target: explanation of the psychological content of the terms "learning", "teaching", "teaching", "learning activity", the principles and methods of teaching.
Lecture plan:
1. The relationship between the concepts of "learning", "teaching", "teaching", "learning activity".
2. general characteristics learning.
3. The structure of the learning process.
4. Psychological substantiation of the principles of education.
5. Theories and concepts of learning.
The term " learning» is used to denote the spontaneous (non-purposeful) acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, it is used mainly in behavioral psychology, covering a wide range of processes for the formation of individual experience. Education involves the cognitive activity of the student and teacher, characterizes the process of transferring knowledge, the formation of skills and abilities, in other words, social experience. The term " education» applies to the activities of the teacher, his specific functions and interaction with students, as well as the students themselves, primarily in the educational process. The term " doctrine» applies to the activities of students, both in the educational process and in the purposeful independent acquisition of knowledge. The term " educational activity» applies to students learning how to acquire knowledge (see CTS).
Education- the activity of a teacher (teacher) in the educational process (N.F. Talyzina); purposeful organized process, stimulation of active educational and cognitive activity of students in mastering scientific knowledge and skills, development creativity, worldview (L.D. Stolyarenko); purposeful sequential transmission of socio-historical socio-cultural experience to another person in specially organized conditions of the family, school, university (I.A. Zimnyaya); joint purposeful activity of the teacher and students, during which the development of the personality, its education and upbringing is carried out. Characteristics of the learning process: 1) socio-historical process; 2) the socio-psychological process in which the transfer of scientific knowledge takes place; 3) the process of subject-subject interaction between the teacher and students; 4) the activity of the teacher, depending on the characteristics of the individual and professional skills.
Structure learning process . Target the component (why teach?) involves the implementation through training of the connection of generations that contribute to the mental development of the individual. Goals can be long-term, intermediate and immediate. Depending on the goals, we can distinguish: 1) theoretical training (formation of concepts); 2) practical training (development of sensory, motor, mental skills). Informative component (what to teach?) - information on each subject, fixed in programs and textbooks, as well as information about generalized methods for solving educational problems. Ways learning (how to teach?) - a set of methods and means. results learning can be: 1) positive (knowledge, skills and abilities, independent ways of mastering socio-historical experience are learned); 2) negative (fading / lack of cognitive activity).
Didactic principles are universal for pedagogical theory and practice.
The principle of natural conformity- the most important of those put forward by Ya.A. Comenius, says: “Everything happens due to self-development, violence is alien to the nature of things”, and man is a part of nature. It is the principle naturalness allowed Ya.A. Comenius to develop a number of other didactic principles.
The foundations of which were laid by Y.A. Comenius, developed by I.F. Herbart and K.D. Ushinsky suggests setting common educational goals. The meaning of educative education is education through the content, methods and forms of teaching, by means of influence of the personality of the teacher and the team participating in cognitive activity. The principle of nurturing education associated with psychological ideas developing : L.S. Vygotsky, V.V. Davydov, D.B. Elkonin, T.M. Saveliev. It reflects the social side of the educational process. The success of mastering the material and the formation of a positive attitude towards cognitive activity in this area is influenced by the surrounding social environment, the moral atmosphere of the class in which the student communicates, which contributes to the development of social competence, formed, among other things, by knowledge of geography, history, culture, ideas about moral and aesthetic values.
Scientific principle involves the organization of training based on scientific methodology, that is, the studied phenomena and facts should be considered comprehensively in all their relationships and mediation, in development with the disclosure of their internal contradictions, causes and effects, taking into account the fact that "practice is the criterion of truth."
The principle of consciousness and activity, suggesting the unity of teaching and learning, justifies the need to stimulate activity in cognitive activity for its conscious development. Its main provisions were formulated by Ya.A. Comenius, and then developed in the works of I.G. Pestalotsii, A.V. Disterweg, K.D. Ushinsky, P.F. Lesgaft. Its essence lies in achieving a deep understanding of the educational material, awareness of its internal patterns and contradictions, and an active desire for knowledge. The activity of students organically follows from their conscious attitude to learning and the corresponding motivation. It is also connected with the feasibility of the presented material, with an emotional attitude towards it, and is determined by the development of the need for cognitive activity, which activates volitional processes aimed at mastering the educational material.
The principle of visibility is to create a clear, vivid idea of the objects and phenomena being studied through their perception in a form closest to the real one, involving several senses. It was also first formulated by Ya.A. Comenius, who substantiated the "golden rule" of didactics, according to which one should present "the visible - for perception by sight; audible - by hearing; smell - smell; subject to taste - taste; accessible to the touch - by touch. Methodological essence of cognition: from living contemplation to abstract thinking and from it to practice. Huge contribution it was substantiated by K.D. Ushinsky, who considered visualization as a means of activating thinking. He wrote: "The more sense organs are involved in the perception of any impression, the more firmly these impressions are lodged in our memory." Strong memorization is facilitated not only by positive, but also by negative emotions. Successfully applied visual clarity(posters, chalk drawings, diagrams, videos), which contributes to the implementation of the principle of consciousness, however, such visibility should be presented as the educational material is presented, without abusing manuals, which can cause distraction of attention. A variant of visual clarity is natural visibility: personal showing and volumetric: layouts, acting models ; auditory: audio recordings.
The principle of systematic and consistent is one of the leading ones, its essence lies in the presentation of educational material based on its internal logic, continuity, the dialectical connection of previous and subsequent information, the formation of skills and abilities in a certain system, and also taking into account age, individual features personality of students and their leading activities. It shows a direct connection with the requirements systems approach. The principle postulates a strict logical connection in the arrangement of educational material by years, periods (semesters, quarters) of study and each lesson. This principle was also formulated by Ya.A. Comenius, who wrote: “Just as in nature everything interlocks with one another, so in training it is necessary to connect everything one with another ...”. It was developed in more detail by K.D. Ushinsky, who noted: “A head filled with fragmentary incoherent knowledge is like a pantry in which everything is in disarray and where the owner himself will not find anything.”
The principle of accessibility was formulated by Ya.A. Comenius as a set of didactic rules as the foundations of "ease of learning and teaching". Rule 1 - "go from easy to difficult"; 2 - "from the known to the unknown"; 3 - "from simple to complex"; 4 - "from near to far." The fourth rule was developed by A.V. Diesterweg, who noted that: “Often in spirit it is very close what from another point of view seems to be very far away”; Rule 5 underlies educational psychology, which postulates it is obligatory to determine the initial level of the child’s learning and assess the dynamics of his development precisely from this own, and not some “average” level . At the present stage of development of didactics, the principle of accessibility is usually considered in combination with the principle of "learning at a high level of difficulties", which will be presented below. The availability of educational material is ensured by a reasonable dosing of its volume, the necessary number of repetitions of the exercises performed, sufficient to transfer information into long-term memory, which determines its assimilation even by poorly prepared students. Accessibility is one of the most important conditions for the success of education.
The principle of learning at a high level of difficulty, It is characterized by the use of high psychological loads in the learning process, subject to their mandatory rationing, taking into account the real mental, physical, age and individual capabilities of students, as well as taking into account their available knowledge, skills and abilities. Justified by L.V. Zankov, this principle underlies his system of developmental education. Under the difficulty of L.V. Zankov understands the knowledge of the essence of the studied phenomena, their interrelations and interdependencies. Let us quote Ya.A. Comenius, which, formulated by L.V. Zankov’s principle, implicitly included in his principle of “feasibility”: “What should be done must be learned by doing ... let them learn to write in schools, practicing writing; speak - practicing speech; sing - practicing singing; inference - practicing inference, etc., so that the schools are nothing more than workshops in which work is in full swing. We must not forget that skills, including motor skills, are developed only through repeated conscious repetition of given techniques and actions. The formation of a skill is determined by the achievement of such criteria as its unconditional automation, economy, duration of preservation, the possibility of transferring to other actions, resistance to interference, etc.
Strength principle characterizes the requirement to achieve such a level of knowledge, mastery of skills and abilities, which ensures their long-term preservation and practical use in difficult conditions of activity, which is necessary both for the formation of cognitive activity, the successful continuation of education, and the development of abilities. Noting that, when graduating from school, most students have "... only a superficial education or even just a hint of education ...", Ya.A. Comenius formulated the principle of "thoroughness" of education, which was then developed by A.V. Disterweg, I.F. Herbart and K.D. Ushinsky. The strength of assimilation of educational material is associated with the correct assessment of its significance for the student and the corresponding psychological attitudes for learning activities. Ya.A. Comenius wrote: “Our memory does not have the ability to immediately reproduce everything that we once read, heard ... the most remote." According to the “Ebbinghaus curve”, it is very important to carry out repetition during those days when the initial presentation of the educational material took place, until its intensive forgetting began, and the next morning after the presentation. An important role is played by the activity of repetition, the search for the relationship of the specified material with the already known, its ordering into a coherent system of concepts. Let us quote once again Ya.A. Comenius, students should “ignite a thirst for knowledge and an ardent zeal for learning ... I always develop independence in observation, in speech, in practice and in application in my students.” The volume and number of presentations of educational material with the help of these means is extremely important. The availability of the amount of information determines the strength of its assimilation. It is important to take into account the influence of emotions on the strength of memorization, preservation and reproduction of educational material, and not only positive, but also negative, contributing to the consolidation of the necessary information, often through the mechanisms of involuntary memory. Worst of all is an indifferent attitude.
The didactic principles listed above are a system in which there is a system-forming factor - the goal of learning - the strength of acquired knowledge, formed skills and abilities, and Feedback- their application in practice - in cognitive activity.
Theories and concepts of learning, ways to optimize learning. Associative-reflex theory (I.P. Pavlov). The concept of the zone of proximal development and its use in developmental education (L.S. Vygotsky). The theory of gradual formation of mental actions P.Ya. Galperin. Developmental training according to the system of D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov. The theory of management of human cognitive activity N.F. Talyzina. Principles of developmental education according to L.V. Zankov. Problem-based learning (J. Dewey, S.L. Rubinshtein). Psychological foundations of programmed learning (B. Skinner). Psychologically oriented models of school education (M.A. Kholodnaya). The theory of complete assimilation (J. Carroll, B. Bloom). Principles of a collective method of learning (A.G. Rivin, V.K. Dyachenko). School of Dialogue of Cultures (V.S. Bibler). Technology of involuntary learning (L.V. Marishchuk). Psychological foundations of project-based learning. Higher education technology. Psychological foundations of suggestopedia and hypnopedia. Main problems of practical implementation modern concepts learning.
Different psychologists invest different content in the concepts used in educational psychology. With this in mind, we indicate what content is embedded in these concepts in this textbook.
The broadest concept educational activity. By this concept, we designate the joint activity of the teacher and the activity of the student. The term is used as equivalent to this concept. educational process. Under the term assimilation the process of transition of elements of social experience into individual experience is understood. Such a transition always presupposes the activity of a subject assimilating social experience. Assimilation occurs in different types of activity: in the game, work, teaching.
Teaching is the activity of a student included in the learning process. In this case, the process of assimilation of social experience is specially organized by the representative of the older generation - the teacher. Teaching has as its goal precisely the assimilation of social experience. The assimilation that occurs in the process of play, labor, is, as it were, a by-product, since these types of activities are performed in order to achieve other goals. So, the purpose of labor activity is to obtain a certain product of labor (food, clothing, etc.).
The activity of the teacher in the educational process is called training: The student learns and the teacher teaches.
The term is also one of the key concepts. formation. Formation is the activity of either an experimenter-researcher or a teacher associated with the organization of the assimilation of a certain element of social experience (concepts, actions) by a student. Both formation and training are connected with the activities of the teacher, but their content does not coincide. First, the concept education broader than the concept formation. Second, when they say education, they mean either what the teacher teaches (mathematics, language), or who he teaches: students. Term formation usually used when talking about what the student acquires: a concept, a skill, a new type of activity.
Thus, the teacher teaches (something), forms (something), and the student learns (something), assimilates (something). The term is also used learning. In foreign psychology, it is used as an equivalent of teaching. In domestic psychology, it is customary to use it in relation to animals. The analogue of that activity which we call learning in man is called learning in animals. We don't usually talk about learning in animals, but about learning. Animals have only two kinds of experience: innate and individually acquired. The latter is the result of learning. Term development associated with the learning process. But development is understood as the present level of what has been developed, mastered, which has already passed from the plane of social experience into the plane of individual experience and, at the same time, has led to some new formations in the personality, intellect, etc.
In the educational activity (educational process), the student learns different types of social experience: intellectual (scientific), industrial, moral, aesthetic, etc.
The general patterns of assimilation of any kind of social experience coincide. At the same time, the process of assimilation of moral, aesthetic experience has its own specific features. In this regard, when talking about these types of experience, they use the term upbringing. In these cases, the activity is called educative: the teacher educates, the student is educated.
TYPES OF LEARNING
All types of learning can be divided into two types: associative and intellectual. A person has five types of learning. Three of them are also characteristic of animals
1. Learning by mechanism imprinting. It is a rapid automatic adaptation of the body to the conditions of life using innate forms of behavior - unconditioned reflexes. Through imprinting, instincts are formed that are genetically programmed and hardly amenable to change.
2. Conditioned reflex learning. Within its framework, life experience is acquired through the formation of conditioned reflexes.
3. Operant learning. In this case, individual experience is acquired by "trial and error".
4. vicarious learning carried out by direct observation of the behavior of other people, as a result of which a person immediately adopts and assimilates the observed forms of behavior
5. verbal learning gives a person the opportunity to acquire new experience through language and verbal communication. Thanks to him, a person can transfer to other people who speak speech and receive from them the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities. To do this, they must be expressed in words understandable to the student, and the meaning of incomprehensible words needs to be clarified.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/178751218_386933688.pdf-img/178751218_386933688.pdf-1.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Basic concepts of the psychology of learning. Learning activity 1. Task of the psychology of learning 2 .Psychological components"> Основные понятия психологии обучения. Учебная деятельность 1. Задача психологии обучения 2. Психологические составляющие обучения 3. Учебная деятельность как система 4. Концепции обучения и их психологические основания!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/178751218_386933688.pdf-img/178751218_386933688.pdf-2.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> The task of learning psychology Learning is an activity that provides mastery of knowledge, skills and skills."> Задача психологии обучения Обучение - деятельность, обеспечивающая овладение знаниями, умениями и навыками. Обучение - процесс активного взаимодействия обучающего и учащегося. Психологическая сторона обучения выражается в структуре учения, его механизмах, как особой специфической деятельности; психологических особенностях личности ученика и учителя; психологических основах методов, способов и форм обучения.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/178751218_386933688.pdf-img/178751218_386933688.pdf-3.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> In the learning system, the teacher and student actively interact. This interaction"> В системе обучения активно взаимодействуют обучающий и учащийся. Это взаимодействие осуществляется путем общения, в результате которого осуществляется учебная деятельность - один из видов деятельности школьников и студентов, направленный на усвоение ими посредством диалогов (полилогов) и дискуссий теоретических знаний и связанных с ними умений и навыков в таких сферах общественного сознания, как наука, искусство, нравственность, право и религия.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/178751218_386933688.pdf-img/178751218_386933688.pdf-4.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> In the course of the historical development of society, the accumulated knowledge is recorded in various"> В ходе исторического развития общества накопленные знания фиксируются в различных материальных формах: предметах, книгах, орудиях труда. Процесс превращения идеального знания в материальную форму называется опредмечиванием. Для того чтобы воспользоваться этим знанием, последующее поколение должно вычленить, понять закрепленную в орудии труда или объекте познания идею. Данный процесс носит название распредмечивания.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/178751218_386933688.pdf-img/178751218_386933688.pdf-5.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>"> Психологическое содержание составляю- щих учебной деятельности раскрывается в - «психологии обучения» . Психология обучения - это научное направление, исследующее психологичес- кие закономерности усвоения знаний, умений и навыков, психологические механизмы научения и учебной деятельности, возрастные изменения, обусловленные процессом научения.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/178751218_386933688.pdf-img/178751218_386933688.pdf-6.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>"> Основная практическая цель психологии обучения направлена на поиск возможностей управления процессом учения. При этом учение рассматривается как специфическая деятельность, включающая мотивы, цели и учебные действия. Она должна привести к формированию психологических новообразований и свойств полноценной личности. Учение - универсальная деятельность, ибо составляет основу овладения любой другой деятельностью.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/178751218_386933688.pdf-img/178751218_386933688.pdf-7.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Central task psychology of learning - analysis and development of requirements for educational activities, "> The central task of the psychology of learning is the analysis and development of requirements for educational activities carried out by the student in the pedagogical process. It is concretized in a set of particular tasks: - identifying the connection between learning and mental development and developing optimization measures pedagogical influences of the process; - identification of general social factors of pedagogical influence that affect the mental development of the child; - system-structural analysis of the pedagogical process; - disclosure of the nature of individual manifestations of mental development, due to the peculiarities of educational activity.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/178751218_386933688.pdf-img/178751218_386933688.pdf-8.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Analysis of learning activities can be based on the following fundamental provisions."> Анализ учебной деятельности может исходить из следующих принципиальных положений. 1. Учебная деятельность отражает прогноз тех изменений, которые могут произойти в !} mental development student involved in the learning process. It also defines the system for evaluating these changes. 2. The organization of educational activities provides for correlation with the personal capabilities of the student and the potential for their development. 3. Each level of personal development is provided with specific forms and content of educational activities.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/178751218_386933688.pdf-img/178751218_386933688.pdf-9.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Psychological components of learning"> Психологические составляющие обучения Как системная организация учебная деятельность имеет относительно устойчивые компоненты и связи между ними. Такими составляющими являются: - предмет обучения; - ученик (субъект обучения); - собственно учебная деятельность (способы обучения, учебные действия); - учитель (субъект обучения).!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/178751218_386933688.pdf-img/178751218_386933688.pdf-10.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> The subject of study is the knowledge, skills and abilities that need to be learned."> Предмет обучения - знания, умения и навыки, которые необходимо усвоить. Ученик - личность, на которую направлено воздействие по освоению знаний, умений и навыков и которая имеет определенные предпосылки для такого освоения. Учебная деятельность - средство, с помощью которого формируются новые знания, умения и навыки. Учитель - человек, который выполняет контролирующие и регулирующие функции, обеспечивая координацию деятельности ученика, пока тот не сможет это делать самостоятельно. Все перечисленные элементы должны соотноситься друг с другом в гармоничном единстве.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/178751218_386933688.pdf-img/178751218_386933688.pdf-11.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Learning activity has its own specifics. The traditional scheme "subject - actually"> Учебная деятельность имеет свою специфику. Традиционная схема «субъект - собственно деятельность - объект - результат» выглядит так:!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/178751218_386933688.pdf-img/178751218_386933688.pdf-12.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> If the "object" is the student's personality ("L" (person) student),"> Если в качестве «объекта» выступает личность ученика («Л» (person) ученика), то схема выглядит иначе: В учебной деятельности активность исходит как от «субъекта» (учителя), так и от «Р - person» (ученика). Все основные составляющие деятельности: мотив, способы деятельности, результаты начинают приобретать двойственное личностное значение, обусловленное личностью ученика и личностью учителя.!}
Basic concepts of the psychology of learning. Learning activities
The task of the psychology of learning
Psychological components of learning
Learning activity as a system
Concepts of learning and their psychological foundations
The task of the psychology of learning
Education is an activity that provides the mastery of knowledge, skills and abilities. Learning is always a process of active interaction between the teacher and the student. Learning has many facets. The psychological side of learning is expressed in the structure of learning, its mechanisms, as a special specific activity; in the psychological characteristics of the personality of the student and teacher; in the psychological foundations of methods, methods and forms of teaching.
Education is a form of organizing the process of transferring knowledge, a social system aimed at transferring the experience of previous generations to a new generation. The organization of learning unfolds in space and time. In the learning system, the teacher and the student actively interact. This interaction is carried out through communication, as a result of which educational activity. In the course of the historical development of society, the accumulated knowledge is fixed in various material forms: objects, books, tools. The process of transforming ideal knowledge into a material form is called objectification. In order to use this knowledge, the next generation must isolate, understand the idea fixed in the tool of labor or the object of knowledge. This process is called deconstruction. It took an extraordinary mind and special abilities to invent and create, for example, a steam engine. Usage requires an understanding of how it works, i.e. awareness of the idea that is objectified in the engine. Thus, the generation that began to use steam engines must de-objectify the creator's idea, in other words, understand the principle of the device. Only under this condition is it possible to use this item (steam engine). Educational activity acts as a means by which ideal knowledge is de-objectified and social experience is formed. The cognitive nature of educational activity is its essential characteristic. It determines all other components of educational activity, creates its focus: needs and motives; goals and actions; funds and operations. Components of educational activity can turn into each other. For example, an action can become a goal or a need, an operation to perform control work turn into a motive that stimulates further learning, etc. In such transformations lies the dynamics of educational activity, the core of which is its objectivity. The concept of objective-practical activity as a transformer of reality serves as the basis for a scientific approach to the analysis of cognitive processes.
The psychological content of all components of educational activity is revealed in the section of educational psychology - "the psychology of learning".
Psychology of learning -this is a scientific direction that investigates the psychological patterns of the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities, the psychological mechanisms of learning and learning activities, age-related changes due to the learning process. The main practical goal of the psychology of learning is aimed at finding ways to manage the learning process. At the same time, teaching is considered as a specific activity, including motives, goals and learning activities. Ultimately, it should lead to the formation of psychological neoplasms and properties of a full-fledged personality. Teaching is a universal activity, because it forms the basis for mastering any other activity. The central task of the psychology of learning- analysis and development of requirements for educational activities carried out by the student in the pedagogical process. It is concretized in a complex of more particular tasks:
identifying the relationship between learning and mental development and developing measures to optimize the pedagogical impacts of the process;
identification of general social factors of pedagogical influence that affect the mental development of the child;
system-structural analysis of the pedagogical process;
revealing the peculiarities of the nature of individual manifestations of mental development, due to the peculiarities of educational activity.
In psychology, there has not yet been a unified theoretical foundation that allows for the analysis and classification of psychological and pedagogical requirements for educational activities. Exist different approaches and theories that address this issue. At the same time, we can talk about certain scientific and psychological developments that make it possible to determine methodological foundations such an analysis.
Analysis of learning activities can proceed from the following fundamental provisions.
1. Educational activity reflects the forecast of those changes that may occur in the mental development of a student included in the educational process. It also defines the system for evaluating these changes.
2. The organization of educational activities provides for correlation with the personal capabilities of the student and the potential for their development.
3. Each level of personal development is provided with specific forms and content of educational activities.
Learning activity has structural and systemic character. A system is a unity of components and their interconnections. The psychological structure is the structure and property of those stable factors that operate in the conditions of fulfilling the task of organizing educational activities.
The structure includes:
1. Components of activity, without which it is impossible. This includes the objectives and goals of the activity; its subject, methods of decision-making and implementation; actions of control and evaluation of activities.
2. Relationships between the indicated components. Impacts, operations, elements of a functional organization, operational display systems, etc. can be interconnected.
3. The dynamics of the establishment of these relationships. Depending on the regularity of the activation of connections, symptom complexes of mental processes and functionally important properties are formed.
All structural elements are connected by numerous connections. Elements of the structure are conditionally indivisible parts of it. Any structure provides the implementation of some functional property, for the sake of which it was actually created, i.e. its main function (for example, the education system is created to realize the function of learning). A function is the process of bringing about a certain result.
The combination of structure and function leads to the formation systems . The main characteristics of the system:
1) it is something whole;
2) is functional in nature;
3) differentiates into a number of elements with certain properties;
4) individual elements interact in the process of performing a certain function;
5) the properties of the system are not equal to the properties of its elements.
6) has information and energy connection with environment;
7) the system is adaptive, changes the nature of functioning depending on the information about the results obtained;
8) different systems can give the same result.
The system is dynamic, i.e. develops during
time. Speaking about the psychological system of activity, we mean by it the unity of mental properties that serve the activity and the connections between them. From the standpoint of a systematic approach, individual mental components (including functions and processes) in activity act as a holistic formation, organized in terms of performing the functions of a specific activity (i.e. achieving a goal), i.e. in the form of a psychological system of activity (PSD). PSD is an integral unity of the mental properties of the subject and their comprehensive connections. The educational process in all its manifestations is realized exclusively by the psychological system of activity. Within its framework, a restructuring of the individual qualities of a person takes place through their construction, restructuring, based on motives, goals, and conditions of activity. Actually, this is how the accumulation of individual experience, the formation of knowledge and the development of the student's personality arise.