Morphological properties of phraseological turnover. The main problems of modern phraseology. Independent parts of speech

Phraseologism is a linguistic unit characterized by the integrity of the meaning, the stability of the lexical composition, grammatical forms and syntactic structure. The main reason for the formation of a phraseological unit is the semantic transformation of the free meanings of the words included in its composition. The components of a phraseological unit acquire a common, integral figurative meaning and in a semantic sense are likened to a word in a certain way. Therefore, the characteristics of the morphological and syntactic properties of phraseological units is an auxiliary factor in their study.

Phraseologism in a sentence usually performs the role of any of its members. The syntactic functional fixation of a phraseological unit and its equivalence to a word make it possible to establish a certain parallelism between certain groups of phrases and parts of speech. Parallelism is possible not for all phraseological units and not with all parts of speech, but only with nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, rarely - interjections.

The following types of phraseological units are distinguished in the language:

1) verbal, or verbal (Latin verb - "verb"): fall into childhood, sharpen lyases, wipe off the face of the earth - "destroy", peck "with your nose -" doze off", circle around your finger - "deceive ", to beat the buckets -" to mess around ";

substantive (lat. substantiv - "noun"): despicable metal - "gold", daylight - "sun", embraces of Morpheus - "soy", bear's corner - "outback", hare soul - " coward", the land of the rising sun - Japan, the eternal city - Rome, the silver wedding - "twenty-fifth married life", a play on words - "pun", etc .;

adjective (lat. adjectiv - "adjective"): skin and bones - "thin", unclean in hand - "dishonest", will not offend a fly - "harmless", ate little porridge - "weak", on his own mind - "cunning", blood with milk - "healthy", not a bastard, seen the views, there are not enough stars from the sky, for one block, for one face, without a king in his head, pure water, born in a shirt, what not to eat;

adverbial, or adverbial (lat. adverb - "adverb"): at least a dime a dozen (a lot), forever and ever (forever), in three streams (strongly), a profit thread, on hastily, without a year a week (recently), in all shoulder blades, to the marrow of bones, to the nines, headlong, up and down, like a squirrel in a wheel, like a chicken paw, who is in the forest who is firewood (unfriendly), according to youth , headlong (recklessly), with all the fibers of the soul;

interjection: that's it! honest mother! so cranberries! here you go! know ours! no matter how! tell me please! like this yes! here's one for you!

The lexical and grammatical meaning of the dominant member of the turnover does not always coincide with the general grammatical meaning phraseologism. For example, seen species has the features of an adjective, a broken hour, or for a cap analysis - adverbs, zero attention acts only as a predicative member.

Individual phraseological units can combine the lexical and grammatical meanings of several parts of speech. For example, in a phraseological unit, the dog ate the adjective and noun meanings: "experienced, knowledgeable in his business" and "master, expert in his field." Phraseologism so-so can act both as an adjective (a movie is so-so - neither bad nor good), and as an adverb (done so-so - neither bad nor good).

Thus, the following types of phraseological units are distinguished in the language: verbal, or verbal (to fall into childhood, to sharpen laces, to wipe off the face of the earth), substantive (despicable metal - "gold", daylight - "sun", embraces of Morpheus - "soy", bear's corner - "backwater"), adjectival (skin and bones - "thin", unclean handed - "dishonest", will not offend a fly - "harmless"), adverbial, or adverbial (even a dime a dozen (a lot), forever and ever (forever), in three streams (strongly)), interjection (that's it! honest mother! that's cranberry! here you go! know ours! no matter how it is! tell me, please! here so yes! here you go!).

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

BELARUSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Philology

Department of the Russian language

The structure of Russian phraseological units with the components “organs of speech”

Course work

5th year students

part-time education in the specialty "Russian Philology"

Tchaikovskaya Natalya Alexandrovna

Supervisor -

Chechet R.G.

Minsk, 2015

Introduction

Chapter 1. Phraseology of the Russian language

1.1 Literature review

1.2 The concept of phraseology and phraseology

1.3 Classification of Russian phraseological units.

1.3.1 Classification in terms of syntactic structure

1.3.2 Classification in terms of style

1.3.3 Phraseological turns in terms of semantic unity of components

1.4 Morphological and syntactic properties of phraseological units

Chapter 2

2.1 The structure of Russian phraseological units with the “language” component

2.2 The structure of Russian phraseological units with the “teeth” component

2.3 The structure of Russian phraseological units with the “throat” component

Conclusion

List of used literature

INTRODUCTION

Relevance of the research topic. The study of Russian phraseology introduces us into the laboratory of the language-creating people, and it is no coincidence that writers study it with such attention, who see in Russian phraseology magnificent examples of figurative expression of the phenomena of reality. The picturesqueness and figurativeness of the authors' speech, which are created through the use of phraseological units, act on the listener's imagination, making him experience what was said more strongly than if the speech were ugly, purely logical.

Of particular importance is the study of phraseology to improve the speech skills of a person, to improve speech culture.

Despite the close attention of researchers to the study of phraseological units, this topic remains understudied.

The question of studying phraseological units containing the names of phenomena of inanimate nature in the Russian language is still open. For this reason, this study is relevant.

main goal term paper is the analysis of the structure of Russian phraseological units with the components "organs of speech"

This goal necessitates the solution of a number of specific tasks:

1. the study of literature on the theory of the study of phraseological units in the Russian language;

2. a selection of phraseological units containing the names of speech organs (tongue, throat, teeth);

3. carrying out the classification of phraseological units containing the names of the organs of speech according to the structure;

Object of study- phraseological turns;

Subject of study- phraseological units containing the names of organs of speech.

The selection of factual material was carried out by continuous sampling from the phraseological dictionary I. V. Fedosov, A. N. Lapitsky "Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language". The total number is 65 phraseological units.

Practical valuecoursework lies in the fact that the actual material, the results of the study can be used in the further study of the problems of Russian phraseology. The research materials will find application in the preparation of lectures and practical exercises in modern Russian, as well as in teaching Russian in foreign classrooms.

CHAPTER 1.PHRASEOLOGY OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

1.1 Literature review

Phraseology - a section of linguistics that studies the semantic, grammatical and stylistic features of phraseological units - has relatively recently become an independent section in Russian linguistics, although the phraseological turns of the Russian language have attracted the attention of its researchers for a long time and under various names (sayings, winged words, aphorisms, proverbs and sayings, expressions, turns of speech, idioms, etc.) were explained both in special collections and in explanatory dictionaries beginning with late XVIII in.

So, even M.V. Lomonosov, drawing up a plan for a dictionary of the Russian literary language, indicated that, in addition to individual words, it should also include "sayings", "idioms" and "phrases", that is, turns, expressions.

However, the phraseological composition of the Russian language began to be subjected to special study quite recently. Until the 40s of the XX century. in the works of Russian scientists on phraseology, one can find only individual thoughts and observations.

First of all, it should be noted here that A.A. Potebni, I.I. Sreznevsky about the connection of phraseology with word formation (in particular, about the emergence of words from expressions), the teachings of F.F. Fortunatov about fused words and fused sayings , theoretical provisions of A.A. Shakhmatova in connection with the analysis of various types of indecomposable phrases and, finally, the thoughts of E.D. Polivanov about the need to single out phraseology as a special section of the science of language.

The emergence of phraseology as a linguistic discipline in Russian linguistics dates back to the 40s of the 20th century and is inextricably linked with the name of Academician V. V. Vinogradov. It was he who, in the works "Basic Concepts of Russian Phraseology as a Linguistic Discipline" and "On the Main Types of Phraseological Units in the Russian Language", posed and solved some general questions that made it possible to create a basis for studying stable combinations of words in the modern Russian literary language. It was he who was the first to give a synchronous classification of phraseological units of the Russian language from the point of view of their semantic unity, and outlined the ways and aspects of their further study.

THEM. Wolfius gives his classification, distinguishing among the stable combinations of words in the Russian language the following groups: 1) idioms, which are a unity indecomposable into their verbal elements, 2) sayings like proverbs, and 3) idioms (such are “expressions that violate the rules of syntax established in the language "", "Expressions built on a play on words", and expressions with words that do not exist outside the phraseological unit. Wulfius' classification is built on various logical foundations. The properties that she notes as characteristic only of idioms are found in idioms, and in sayings such as proverbs, and on the contrary, I. M. Vulfius did not see the importance and value for the study of Russian phraseological units of the synchronous classification of phraseological units from the point of view of their semantic unity S. Balli. their original scope existence. At the same time, her article also contains very correct remarks related to the problems of constructing phraseological dictionaries and the comparative study of phraseological units of various languages.

The article “Stable combinations of words” by S. I. Abakumov seems to be more interesting and valuable. It is the first attempt to give a classification of phraseological units of the Russian language in terms of their structure and "etymological composition", and also contains an attempt to describe the most important general properties of idioms (taking into account what was said about them in relation to the French language Ch. Bally).

When considering phraseological units from the point of view of their origin in the Russian language, S. I. Abakumov correctly notes the presence of foreign and tracing facts in the Russian phraseological system. From the point of view of semantic fusion, S. I. Abakumov divides stable combinations of words into two groups:

1) idioms, which are a phrase that has a meaning that does not follow from the meanings of its constituent elements

2) names consisting of several words.

After the appearance of works on the phraseology of V.V. Vinogradov phraseological turns have become the subject of close attention and comprehensive study. In the future, phraseological units are also studied from the point of view of their structure, grammatical properties and origin.

Came out a large number of works devoted to the study of specific phraseological material, especially a lot of Ph.D. dissertations on the phraseology of a particular writer.

Among the works that appeared before 1960 - for a number of reasons - it should be noted the works of A.I. Efimova, B.A. Larina, O.S. Akhmanova and S.I. Ozhegov.

In the book “On the Language of Artistic Works”, A. I. Efimov for the first time clearly and definitely formulated the goals and objectives of the phraseological analysis of a literary text, gave a classification of phraseological material from a stylistic point of view, and outlined a range of issues related to the phraseological innovation of writers and publicists.

In the “Essays on Phraseology” by B. A. Larin, it is especially important to pose a number of problems of the diachronic study of the phraseological system of the Russian language, in particular, the absolutely fair nomination as the most relevant and responsible work of the phraseologist “the establishment of objective patterns of formation and development of non-free phrases” and the call to widespread use in research on phraseology of comparative and comparative-historical methods.

In O. S. Akhmanova’s book “Essays on General and Russian Lexicology”, special attention is drawn to the coverage of the nature of the lexico-phraseological variation of the Russian word and a detailed lexical-semantic description of nominal and verbal phraseological models of the type old truth, wisdom tooth, know the measure, go down in history.

In the article by S. I. Ozhegov “On the structure of phraseology”, an attempt is made to determine on what scientific foundations the phraseology should be built. phrasebook as a manual, which will reflect "all specific forms of functioning of phraseological units, their stylistic functions, origin, etc." This article also draws attention to the introduction of the concept of phraseology in the broad and narrow sense and the concept of the reference word of the phraseological unit.

Since the 60s of the twentieth century, the study of the phraseological composition of the Russian language has become especially intense and multidirectional. In addition to works on individual phraseological problems, various general works began to appear.

Here, first of all, it is necessary to note the works of V.L. Arkhangelsky (" Set phrases in modern Russian". Rostov, 1964), S.G. Gavrina (“Studying the Phraseology of the Russian Language at School”. M., 1963), A.M. Babkin (“Lexicographic development of Russian phraseology”, M.-L., 1964), A.N. Mordvilko (“Essays on Russian phraseology (nominal and verbal phrases”. M., 1964), M.T. Tagieva (“Verbal phraseology of the modern Russian language”. Baku, 1966), V.N. Teliya (“What is phraseology” . M., 1966) and N.M. Shansky (“Phraseology of the modern Russian language”. M., 1963).

1.2 The concept of phraseology and phraseology

Phraseology is a section of linguistics that studies stable combinations in a language. Phraseology is also called a set of stable combinations in the language as a whole, in the language of a particular writer, in the language of a particular artwork etc.

Stable non-free phrases (beat the buckets, count the raven, get into a mess, win etc.) are also called phraseological units (PU), phraseological units, phraseological units, phrasemes, stable verbal complexes (USK), phrase combinations, etc.

As an independent linguistic discipline, phraseology arose relatively recently. The subject and tasks, the scope and methods of studying it are not yet clearly defined, have not received full coverage. Less developed than others are questions about the main features of phraseological units in comparison with free phrases, about the classification of phraseological units and their relationship with parts of speech, etc. Russianists did not have a unanimous opinion about what a phraseologism is, and, consequently, there is no unity of views on the composition of these units in the language. Some researchers include all stable combinations in the phraseology, others only certain groups. So, some linguists (including academician V.V. Vinogradov) do not include proverbs, sayings and catchwords in the categories of phraseological units, believing that they differ in their semantics and syntactic structure (they have a sentence structure and are not semantic equivalents of words) from phraseological units.

One of the most important problems of modern phraseology is the question of whether to include prepositional-nominal forms of the type in years-- "elderly" on hand-- "beneficial" in moderation- "as much as necessary", etc. Some researchers point to their non-phraseological nature, others believe that the vast majority of prepositional-case expressions are stable word complexes, expressions of a phraseological type. The issue of attributing stable combinations of a terminological nature to phraseological units is considered differently. (white mushroom, blue fuel, Railway), item combinations (Supreme Council, World Peace Council), speech etiquette formulas (good afternoon, please, good night) and etc.

Some researchers (A.I. Efimov, S.I. Ozhegov) consider it appropriate to distinguish between the concept of phraseology in the narrow and broad sense of the word. In a narrow sense, they refer to phraseology only phraseological fusions, phraseological units and phraseological combinations. In a broad sense - all stable expressions (proverbs, sayings, aphorisms, etc.).

Since phraseological units are in many ways similar to a word, phraseology itself is directly adjacent to lexicology. Some scholars even include phraseology as part of lexicology.

The volume of language material, its specificity, the development of the theory of phraseology give every reason to single out phraseology as an independent linguistic discipline.

The basic unit of phraseology is a stable combination, phraseological turnover. This is a reproducible language unit, consisting of two or more significant words, integral in its meaning and stable in structure.

Phraseologism is the main unit of the modern phraseological system, the unit is complex, multifaceted, difficult to distinguish from the total number of words, and even more so phrases, and therefore difficult to determine. Various researchers different definitions of phraseology.

Phraseological unit , phraseological unit, phraseological turn - a phrase in which semantic solidity (the integrity of the nomination) prevails over the structural separateness of its constituent elements (the selection of the features of an object is subject to its integral designation), as a result of which it functions as part of a sentence as the equivalent of a separate word.

A phraseological unit is understood as a stable and reproducible separately designed language unit, consisting of components, endowed with a holistic (or less often partially holistic) meaning and combined with other words. Phraseologism begins where the semantic implementation of its components ends.

A phraseological unit is understood as a relatively stable, reproducible, expressive combination of lexemes, which (as a rule) has a holistic meaning. .

Phraseological turnover is a unit of two or more stress components of a verbal character, reproduced in finished form, fixed (i.e., constant) in its meaning, composition and structure.

The meaning of a phraseological unit will become more obvious if we consider a set of basic distinguishing (or differentiating) categorical features that characterize it. To do this, we compare the phraseological turnover with the word, on the one hand, and the phrase, on the other.

In contrast to the word with its constant whole-formation (according to the composition of sounds and morphemes) and single-stress phraseologism is characterized by lexical and accentological separate design.

The lexical meaning of each word is isolated. It directly or indirectly names (and also defines) an object, concept, action, etc. The meaning of a phraseological unit consisting of two or more words is single, integral, generalized, always expressive. It is not free, semantically indivisible, since it is a completely (or partially) unmotivated meaning of the constituent words, which in its composition are no longer called words, but components, the more their complete or partial lexical emptiness, desemantization is emphasized. Some scholars call this meaning lexical, others phraseological, which seems to us more consistent (cf.: lexical meaning, grammatical meaning, etc.). Thus, one of the main, categorically essential features of a phraseological unit is the presence of a special, expressive, integral phraseological meaning.

There is also a similarity between a word and a phraseological unit. It lies in the fact that both units are reproduced in finished form; each word and each phraseological unit is characterized by regular correlation with the same part of speech, and therefore, perform similar syntactic functions.

Of these similar features, only the constancy of categorical (i.e., grammatical) correlation should be called a feature that is actually distinctive for a phraseological unit. Phraseologism differs even more from a free phrase, to which, genetically, it would seem, it is much closer than to a word.

The first difference is that a free phrase is modeled anew each time and exists only within the context for which it was created. Phraseologism is always reproduced in finished form, in the same constantly repeated component composition.

This leads to the next difference. Understanding the semantics of a free phrase depends entirely on the meaning of its constituent words, i.e., there is a complete motivation for its meaning. The semantics of a phraseological unit does not depend on the meaning of the constituent components, i.e., as a rule, it is unmotivated.

In addition, in a free phrase, you can neither replace nor omit a single word so that the meaning of the entire combination does not change. In phraseology, such substitutions and omissions are sometimes found ( lower your eyes, lower your head). However, such changes must be determined by certain stylistic goals of the writer or speaker and compensated by the whole context, i.e. the possibility of using the reception of substitutions, skipping, truncation, although relative, but it exists. And the general meaning of the entire phraseological unit does not change.

The next difference is that in a free phrase, each of the words refers to one or another part of speech and their syntactic functions in a sentence are independent (with the exception of syntactically unified phrases such as prepositions with nouns, numerals with nouns). The syntactic functions of a phraseological unit (as well as its correlation with parts of speech) are determined as a whole, they are the same for all its components.

The similarity of a free phrase and phraseologism is only formal - both consist of words, the first one consists of full-valued ones, with different types of meanings, the second one has desemantized words, which in general always create an expressive, and sometimes metaphorically figurative meaning. In the second unit, these are no longer words proper, but components.

So, comparison with a word and a free phrase allows us to highlight the main features of phraseological units:

1) the presence of a special, holistic phraseological meaning;

2) the constancy of reproduction of the same component composition;

3) expressiveness and metaphor in semantics.

The rest of the signs are separate design; the presence of two or more logical stresses: contextual conditionality of use; complete (or partial) impossibility of word-by-word translation into other languages, etc., are less significant, although they are necessary to characterize phraseological units. Therefore, the identification of the main, as well as additional, so-called optional distinctive features makes it possible to define a phraseological unit as such a semantically indecomposable phrase, which is characterized by the constancy of a special integral meaning, component composition, grammatical categories and expression. We will adhere to this definition in our work.

1.3 Classification of Russian phraseological units

1.3.1 Classification in terms of syntactic structure

Phraseological phrases always act as reproducible linguistic units as a structural whole of a composite nature, consisting of words that are different in their morphological properties and are in different syntactic relations with each other. According to the structure, phraseological units are usually divided into three groups:

1. PhU-word forms are represented by word forms: not to your liking, not burning, not one iota;

2. Phrase-phrases are structurally no different from free phrases and are nominative units that act as individual members of the sentence: effigy pea, Indian summer, goose;

1) a noun with an adjective (pronoun, ordinal number): stuffed pea, Indian summer, absolute zero, clawed goose, White spot, second youth, mouse fuss, first steps, the eternal city, female gender, etc .;

a noun in the nominative case with a noun in the genitive case: servant of the people, flowers of life, friend of life, dove of peace, bonds of friendship, flour of the word, etc .;

noun in the nominative case with a prepositional case form of the noun: ticket to life, blood for blood, zero without a wand, knee-deep sea, head on shoulders, knife in the back, step by step;

prepositional case form of a noun with a noun in the genitive case: in the sweat of the face, to the roots of the hair, worth its weight in gold, in the color of years, in the order of things, on the topic of the day;

a combination of prepositional case forms of nouns: from dawn to dawn, right off the bat, from minute to minute, eye to eye, from ship to ball, from head to toe;

prepositional case form of a noun with an adjective: for a long ruble, for a sweet soul, with a tightrope, from a kind heart, to gray hair, to a coffin;

a verb with a noun: to pull a strap, to powder, to go with the flow, to lather your neck, to remember with kindness, to stare, to wash bones;

verb with adjoining adverb: fly like an arrow, see through, get into trouble, turn inside out;

gerund with a controlled noun: hands folded, sleeves rolled up, heart reluctantly, hand over heart;

constructions with pronouns: all of a sudden, neither her, everything and everything, yours (ours, yours) took;

constructions with coordinating and subordinating unions: both in the tail and in the mane, to judge and to row, if yes, if only, no matter what, then it’s densely empty, like a bitter radish, cheap and cheerful, at least henna, at least run away, at least shout the guard, even roll a ball, even howl a wolf, etc .;

12) constructions with denial: not salty slurping, not from this world, not in the tooth with a foot, not in one eye, not by night, be it said, not in the teeth.

3. PU sentences are used independently or as part of another sentence : the soil leaves from under the feet, the soul goes to the heels, the mouth is full of trouble, the trace is cold .

Phraseologisms-sentences are structurally organized according to the model of one or another sentence, usually two-part, they can have a communicative meaning, they are used independently or as part of another sentence: the soul goes to the heels, the ears wither, it takes evil, the hands do not reach, the legs are braided, the tongue is braided, the soil leaves from under the feet, the mouth is full of trouble, the cat cried, the chickens do not peck, he ate the dog, at hand, the trace caught a cold, etc.

Among the phraseological units-sentences are:

a) Phraseological units ascending to a simple sentence:

Two-part (the reins fell under the tail, the grandmother said in two)

One-piece (keep your pocket wider, I have the honor<кланяться>)

b) Phraseological units that are genetically part of complex sentences different types(in what the soul keeps, where the eyes look, what is urine, as if nothing had happened).

Thus, according to the structure, phraseological units are divided into three groups: phraseological units (not to their liking, not burning, not one iota), phraseological units (nominative phraseological units) (stuffed pea, Indian summer, pawed goose), phraseological units (communicative phraseological units) (the soil leaves from under the feet, the soul goes to the heels, the mouth is full of trouble, the trace is cold).

1.3.2 Classification in terms of style

Being part of the vocabulary, phraseological turns form several stylistic layers.

From the point of view of stylistic (that is, depending on their predominant use in a particular area public people) interstyle, bookish, colloquial and colloquial phraseological units are distinguished.

Interstyle phraseological turns

Interstylistic phraseological turnover is used in all styles of the modern Russian literary language. Interstitials include: eventually, New Year, cousin. Interstyle turns make up a smaller part of phraseology, since most phraseological units are formed and function either in a colloquial style or in a book style. Performing a purely nominative function, they do not express the speaker's attitude to the designation of objects and their features. These phraseological units can be called neutral both from the point of view of style and from the emotional point of view.

Book phraseological turns

Book phraseological turns are used in the style of fiction in journalism, scientific and official business styles, for example: the donkey of Baalam, the caliph for an hour, a book with seven seals and others. Official business and terminological phraseological units are usually neutral from an emotional point of view. But in fiction and journalism, many bookish phraseological phrases are used, which have different emotional connotations. significant portion book phraseological units characterized by the coloring of solemnity and rhetoric; For example: on the battlefield holier than saints, mind honor and conscience of our era. Among book phraseological phrases, ironic and playful ones stand out, for example: comrade in misfortune, cry in a vest, veal delight.

Colloquial phraseological turns

Colloquial phraseological turns; these include most of the phraseological fusions, unities and proverbs that were formed in live folk speech. These phraseological turns have a pronounced expressiveness, which is facilitated by their metaphorical nature, for example : play spillikins, with the world on a thread - a naked shirt, muddy the waters, at the end of the world. Among colloquial phraseological units, one can single out a group of tautological, obsolete phrases, the expressiveness of which is expressed by the repetition of words that have the same root, for example: dark darkness, fool by fool, chin by chin. A very bright emotionally expressive coloring of playfulness is contained in phraseological phrases of a punning nature, for example: a week without a year, from a vest sleeve, without hind legs.

Colloquial phraseological turns

Colloquial phraseological phrases have a more reduced stylistic character than colloquial ones, for example: show Kuzkin's mother, with a good obscenity, tear a goat, foolish head.

This group of phraseological units is characterized by pronounced emotionality, more often they have a negative connotation of disapproval, for example: petty bipod, poke your nose, scratch your tongue; disdain, for example : stationery rat, nettle seed, nut is weak; swear words, for example: boobie king of heaven, old pepper.

Thus, from a stylistic point of view (that is, depending on their predominant use in a particular area of public people), phraseological units are divided into interstyle, bookish, colloquial and colloquial phraseological units.

phraseological unit structure organ speech

1.3.3 Phraseological turns in terms of semantic unity of components

Linguists have studied various aspects of phraseology, but to this day there is no consensus on the issue of the volume of phraseology, there is no single classification of phraseological units of the Russian language in terms of their semantic unity. For the first time, the classification of phraseological units in terms of their semantic unity in French was presented by Ch. Bally. S.I. Abakumov in 1936 made an attempt to classify phraseological units in terms of their structure, semantic unity and "etymological composition". V.V. Vinogradov for the first time was a synchronous classification of phraseological units of the Russian language in terms of their semantic unity. V.V. Vinogradov singled out three main types of phraseological units, which were called ""phraseological unit of fusion"", ""phraseological unit of unity"", ""phraseological unit of combination"".

Phraseological unions. Phraseological fusions are absolutely indivisible, indecomposable stable combinations, the general meaning of which does not at all depend on the meaning of the words that make them up: beat the thumbs, sharpen the balusters (balusters), eat the dog, kill the worm, speak the teeth, get into a mess, in the middle of nowhere, the mosquito will not undermine the nose, topsy-turvy, etc.

Phraseological fusions arose on the basis of the figurative meanings of their components, but subsequently these figurative meanings became incomprehensible from the point of view of modern language. The figurativeness of phraseological fusions is revealed only historically. For example, the meaning of the phraseological unit mosquito will not undermine the nose - "you can not find fault, as it is done very well" - does not follow from the meanings of the words mosquito and undermine. But if we remember that in the Old Russian language the word to undermine meant "slip", then we will understand the figurative meaning of the whole expression. We see similar things in phraseological units like a falcon (falcon - "smoothly planed pole, ram"), on the topic of the day (malice - the old meaning of "care",) "get into a mess (prosak -" a device for twisting ropes "), etc. .

Thus, in phraseological fusions, the connection between direct and figurative meanings is lost, figurative for them has become the main one. That is why phraseological fusions cannot be translated into other languages. Untranslatability is one of the signs of phraseological fusions.

Phraseological fusions have a number of characteristic features:

1) they may include so-called necrotisms - words that are not used anywhere except for this fusion, are therefore incomprehensible from the point of view of the modern language (upside down, you can’t see it at all, raise antimony, ask a screech, raise shura- mura, in the middle of nowhere, sharpen the laces, let the turuses on wheels, etc.);

the structure of adhesions may include archaic grammatical forms (dark water in the clouds - “in the clouds”, you don’t know your own - “didn’t recognize”, the parable of the town - “in the peoples”, without hesitation - “nothing doubting");

they are syntactically indecomposable (anywhere, it’s a joke to say, how much in vain, headlong, headlong, on your mind, as if nothing had happened);

in them it is impossible in most cases to rearrange the components;

they are characterized by impenetrability - they do not allow additional words to be included in their composition.

Losing their independent lexical meaning, the words included in the structure of phraseological fusion turn into components of a complex lexical unit, which approaches in meaning to a single word. Therefore, most phraseological fusions are synonymous with the words: chickens do not peck - a lot, a little light - early, headlong - quickly, carelessly - lazily and under. .

Phraseological units. Phraseological units are such stable combinations of words in which, in the presence of a common figurative meaning, signs of semantic separation of the components are clearly preserved: keep a stone in your bosom, take out dirty linen in public, seven Fridays a week, a shot sparrow, hang by a thread, swim shallowly, blood with milk, dance to someone else's tune, stab without a knife, scratch with your tongue, substitute a leg, go with the flow, beat with a key, take it into your own hands, search during the day with fire, put under a cloth, etc.

Phraseological units are somewhat closer to phraseological fusions in their figurativeness, metaphoricalness. But in contrast to phraseological fusions, where the figurative content is revealed only historically, in phraseological units, figurativeness and portability are recognized from the point of view of the modern language. No wonder Academician V.V. Vinogradov considers figurativeness as a characteristic feature of phraseological units only.

The connection between the components of phraseological unity is motivated, metaphorization is clearly felt. To understand phraseological unity, it is necessary to perceive its components in a figurative sense. For example, the meaning of the expression to make an elephant out of a fly, i.e. "strongly exaggerate something", is revealed only if the word fly is considered in the meaning of "something insignificant, small", and the word elephant - "something that's very big." In the composition of phraseological units there are no words that are not understandable from the point of view of the modern language.

Characteristic features of phraseological units:

vivid figurativeness and the resulting possibility of coincidence with parallel existing free phrases (cf .: lather your head, go with the flow, sit on your neck, scratch your tongue, etc.);

preservation of the semantics of individual components;

the impossibility of replacing one component with another, great opportunity rearrangement of components; emotionally expressive coloration, which plays a decisive role here in the formal consolidation of a free phrase in the function of a stable one (cf. nothing to say! just hold on!),

the ability to enter into synonymous relations with individual words or other phraseological units.

phraseological combinations. Phraseological combinations are stable turns, which include words with both free and phraseologically related meanings: a black horse, a delicate question, a bosom friend, sudden death, a bitter frost, a sworn enemy, a stunning view, an eyesore, a loose concept, cry out loud i dr.

A component with a non-free meaning is called a constant part, or a key word of a phraseological unit, a component with a free meaning is called a variable part. For example, in combination to look down, the first component is a constant part, the second is a variable (cf. eyes, gaze, glance, etc.).

Phraseological combinations are distinguished that contain in their composition a word form with a single compatibility: indelible - only an impression, sworn - only an enemy, etc.

Unlike phraseological fusions and phraseological units that have a holistic indecomposable meaning, phraseological combinations are characterized by semantic decomposability. In this respect, they are close to free phrases.

Characteristic features of phraseological combinations: they allow the variance of one of the components (pitch hell, pitch darkness);

a synonymous replacement of the core word is possible (stain with blood, stain with blood);

it is possible to include definitions (frowning black eyebrows, lowering guilty eyes);

permutation of components is allowed (search with fire during the day - search with fire during the day),

necessarily the free use of one of the components and the associated use of the other.

phraseological expressions. The promotion of reproducibility as the main feature of phraseological units allowed Professor N.M. Shansky to develop further the classification of Academician V.V. Vinogradov and highlight the fourth type of phraseological units - the so-called phraseological expressions.

Phraseological expressions include phraseological phrases that are stable in their composition and use, which entirely consist of words with a free nominative meaning and are semantically distinct. Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and certain semantics.

Depending on the structure, phraseological expressions are divided into two types: phraseological expressions of a communicative and nominative nature. The first are predicative combinations that are sentences and perform the function of communication (Long live the sun! Let the darkness hide! A.S. Pushkin). The second are phrases that perform a nominative function (higher educational institution, warmongers). Phraseological expressions include numerous Russian proverbs and sayings that are used in the literal sense, do not have a figurative allegorical meaning: live a century - learn a century; finished the job - walk boldly, etc. This should also include stable terms consisting of two or more words, motivated in their meanings: comparative linguistics, atomic energy, animated noun, etc.

Thus, the modern classification of phraseological units from the point of view of the semantic unity of the components includes four types of phraseological units: phraseological fusions, phraseological units, phraseological combinations, phraseological expressions.

1.4 Morphological and syntactic propertiesphraseological units

The following types of phraseological units are distinguished in the language:

substantive (lat. substantiv - "noun"): despicable metal - "gold", daylight - "sun", embraces of Morpheus - "soy", bear's corner - "outback", hare soul - " coward", the land of the rising sun - Japan, the eternal city - Rome, a silver wedding - "twenty-five years of married life", a play on words - "pun", etc .;

adverbial, or adverbial (lat. adverb - "adverb"): at least a dime a dozen (a lot), forever and ever (forever), in three streams (strongly), a profit thread, in haste, without a year a week (recently), in all shoulder blades, to the marrow of bones, to the nines and ashes, headlong, far and wide, like a squirrel in a wheel, like a chicken with a paw, someone in the forest for firewood (unfriendly), according to youth, headlong (reckless), everyone the fibers of the soul;

interjection: that's it! honest mother! so cranberries! here you go! know ours! no matter how! tell me please! like this yes! here's one for you!

The lexico-grammatical meaning of the dominant member of the turnover does not always coincide with the general grammatical meaning of the phraseological unit. For example, seen species has the features of an adjective, a broken hour, or for a cap analysis - adverbs, zero attention acts only as a predicative member.

CHAPTER 2THE STRUCTURE OF RUSSIAN PHRASEOLOGICAL CURRENTS WITH THE COMPONENTS OF "SPEECH ORGANS"

2.1 The structure of Russian phraseological units with the "language" component

Russian phraseological units with the component “language” are divided into three groups according to the structure of phraseological units:

1. PhU-word forms with the “language” component are represented by word forms: without tongue. This phraseological unit has the meaning "Someone has lost the ability to speak, pronounce words, mute."

2. Phrase-phrases with the “language” component are structurally no different from a free phrase and are units of a nominative nature that act as individual members of a sentence.

Phraseologisms-phrases are, like words, units of a nominative nature and act as individual members of a sentence. Structurally, they are no different from free phrases and represent the following structural models:

1) a noun with an adjective (pronoun, ordinal number): evil tongue (1. Someone is sarcastic in conversation, often ironic about someone or something. 2. Manner, the ability to sharply, sharply, mockingly speak, judge about someone or something), paper language (“bureaucratic style of old clerical official papers”), mother-in-law language, Aesopian (sky) language (“not direct, mysterious language, the ability to speak in blunt words, parables, the speech of people who fought with power, revolutionaries of all countries and times”;

2) a noun in the nominative case with a noun in the genitive case: a mixture of languages (“confusion”, “a motley crowd where you can’t make out anything”);

3) a noun in the nominative case with a prepositional case form of the noun: tongue without bones (“about a talkative person - is part of the proverb “Language without bones - whatever you want to whip””), language like a pomelo;

4) prepositional-case form of a noun with an adjective: brisk on the tongue (“Eloquent, talkative”), brisk on the tongue (“Talkative, talkative”).

5) a verb with a noun: bite your tongue (“shut up, realizing the inappropriateness of your words”), beat your tongue (with your tongue) (“In vain, talk about something in vain, chat”), chat with your tongue (“1. Talk too much; talk nonsense). 2. Talk empty"), take (take) on the tongue ("Taste something"), wag the tongue ("1. talk a lot, especially in vain or stupidly", 2. the same as chatting; reveal any secret, secret”), swallow the tongue (“Shut up, stop talking (of unwillingness to speak to anyone)”), scratch the tongue (tongue) (“Talk, engage in empty chatter”), untie the tongue (“force to break the silence, speak freely after a long silence"), spin on the tongue ("to say something about the desire").

3. PU-sentences with the "language" component are used independently or as part of another sentence.

Phraseologisms-sentences are structurally organized according to the model of one or another sentence, usually two-part, can have a communicative meaning, are used independently or as part of another sentence: the language is braided (“About someone who cannot clearly, articulately say anything”), the language is good (poorly) suspended (“Someone (not) knows how to speak fluently, smoothly”), the tongue was taken away from anyone (“about the inability to speak”), to keep his mouth shut (“Being careful, fearing undesirable consequences, be silent, do not say too much"), pip on your tongue ("an ironic wish to someone who expressed an unkind thought, predicted something unpleasant"), like a cow licked her tongue ("Someone (something) in an instant disappeared without a trace (lo ), as if it had never happened”), the tongue loosened (“someone started talking, started talking a lot (after silence)”), find mutual language(“Make an understanding”).

Thus, according to the structure, phraseological units with the “language” component are divided into three groups: phraseological units (without language), phraseological units (nominative phraseological units) (language without bones, language like a pomelo, striker on the tongue, bite the tongue, beat the tongue ( tongue), etc.), PU sentences (communicative phraseological units) (pip on your tongue, like a cow licked it with its tongue, the tongue untied, etc.).

2.2 The structure of Russian phraseological units with the “teeth” component

Russian phraseological units with the “teeth” component are divided into two groups according to the structure of phraseological units:

1. Phrase-phrases with the “teeth” component are structurally no different from a free phrase and are units of a nominative nature that act as individual members of a sentence.

1. a verb with a noun: to speak teeth (“to flatter someone with verbose evidence, to force them to agree with undoubted nonsense”), to have a tooth (“to harbor anger, annoyance against him, as if some kind of unquenched thirst for revenge, a desire to settle scores”), look in the teeth (“Be complaisant, submissive”), impose in the teeth, in the teeth are stuck (“very tired”), sharpen the tooth (“get angry, prepare for revenge”), give in the teeth (“hit”), show the teeth ( “threaten”), scratching your teeth (“the same as talking with your tongue”).

2. gerund with a controlled noun: armed to the teeth (“beautifully armed, in every possible way, by all means”).

3. constructions with coordinating and subordinating conjunctions: through teeth (“1) opening the mouth very little. 2) trans. haughtily, as if reluctantly, indistinctly, out of contempt for the listener.

4. constructions with denial: too tough (“1) hard to chew. 2) trans. beyond one’s ability, beyond one’s strength, inaccessible to understanding”), neither in the tooth, nor in the tooth with a foot (“about someone who knows nothing, who cannot tell anything, answer some question”).

4. PU-sentences with the “teeth” component are used independently or as part of another sentence.

Phraseologisms-sentences are structurally organized according to the model of one or another sentence, usually two-part, can have a communicative meaning, are used independently or as part of another sentence: put teeth on a shelf (“due to lack of material means, switch to a half-starved existence”), an eye for an eye , a tooth for a tooth (“to get what it deserves”, “as it comes around, it will respond”), a tooth doesn’t hit us (“about trembling from severe frost, cold”).

Thus, according to the structure, phraseological units with the “language” component are divided into two groups: phraseological units (nominative phraseological units) (armed to the teeth, through the teeth, too tough, neither in the tooth, nor in the tooth with the foot, etc.), PU-sentences (communicative phraseological units) (put teeth on a shelf, an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, a tooth does not hit us, etc.).

2.3 The structure of Russian phraseological units with the “throat” component

Russian phraseological units with the “throat” component are divided into three groups according to the structure of phraseological units:

1. PhU-word forms with the “throat” component are represented by word forms: by the throat (“force to do something, put in a hopeless situation”), from the throat.

2. Phrase-phrases with the “throat” component are structurally no different from a free phrase and are units of a nominative nature that act as individual members of a sentence.

1. noun with an adjective (pronoun, ordinal number): insatiable throat (“about a gluttonous person”).

2. a noun in the nominative case with a prepositional case form of the noun: lump in the throat (“spasm in gomrl (from excitement)”.

3. prepositional-case form of a noun with an adjective: fed up (“fed up (in the sense of not food, but something unpleasant”), with a knife to the throat (attach) (colloquial) - extremely persistently, relentlessly.

4. verb with a noun: get stuck in the throat (“the words remained unspoken, unspoken (from embarrassment, fear, due to unwillingness, etc.”), dry up in the throat, take someone by the throat (“force to do something , put in a stalemate"), wet the throat ("drink a little"), tickle in the throat, tear the throat ("bawl, shout loudly"), approach the throat, roll up to the throat.

5. constructions with coordinating and subordinating conjunctions: across the throat (to become) to whom (“about something that interferes, annoys, bothers”).

3. PU-sentences with the "throat" component are used independently or as part of another sentence.

Phraseologisms-sentences are structurally organized according to the model of a particular sentence, usually two-part, can have a communicative meaning, are used independently or as part of another sentence: put a knife to your throat.

Thus, according to the structure, phraseological units with the “throat” component are divided into three groups: phraseological units (by the throat, from the throat), phraseological units (nominative phraseological units ) ( lump in the throat, with a knife to the throat, fed up, stuck in the throat, etc.), phraseological units (communicative phraseological units) (put a knife to the throat).

...

Morphological analysis of a noun

the initial form in the nominative case, singular (with the exception of nouns used only in the plural: scissors, etc.);
own or common noun;
animate or inanimate;
gender (m, f, cf.);
number (unit, plural);
declination;
case;
syntactic role in a sentence.

Plan of morphological analysis of a noun

"The baby is drinking milk."

Kid (answers the question who?) - noun;

initial form - baby;
permanent morphological features: animate, common noun, concrete, masculine, 1st declension;
inconstant morphological features: nominative case, singular;
in the syntactic analysis of the sentence, it plays the role of the subject.

Morphological analysis of the word "milk" (answers the question of whom? What?).

initial form - milk;
constant morphological characteristic of the word: neuter, inanimate, real, common noun, 2nd declension;
variable morphological features: accusative, singular;
in a sentence with a direct object.

Here is another example of how to make a morphological analysis of a noun, based on a literary source:

"Two ladies ran up to Luzhin and helped him get up. He began to knock the dust off his coat with his palm. (Example from: Luzhin's Defense, Vladimir Nabokov)."

Ladies (who?) - noun;

the initial form is a lady;
constant morphological features: common noun, animate, concrete, female, I declination;
fickle morphological noun characteristic: singular, genitive;
syntactic role: part of the subject.

Luzhin (to whom?) - noun;

initial form - Luzhin;
faithful morphological characteristic of the word: proper name, animated, concrete, masculine, mixed declension;
non-permanent morphological features of a noun: singular, dative case;

Palm (what?) - noun;

initial form - palm;
constant morphological features: feminine, inanimate, common noun, concrete, I declension;
unstable morphos. signs: singular, instrumental;
syntactic role in context: complement.

Dust (what?) - noun;

initial form - dust;
main morphological features: common noun, real, feminine, singular, animate not characterized, III declension (noun with zero ending);
fickle morphological word characteristic: accusative;
syntactic role: complement.

the initial form is a coat;
constant correct morphological characteristic of the word: inanimate, common noun, concrete, neuter, indeclinable;
morphological features are unstable: the number cannot be determined from the context, the genitive case;
syntactic role as a member of a sentence: addition.

Morphological analysis of the adjective

adjective - significant Part of speech. Answers questions What? Which? Which? Which? and characterizes the features or qualities of an object. Table of morphological features of the adjective name:

initial form in the nominative case, singular, masculine;
constant morphological features of adjectives:
- rank, according to the value:
- - - quality (warm, silent);
  - - relative (yesterday, reading);
  - - possessive (hare, mother's);
- degree of comparison (for qualitative, in which this feature is constant);
- full / short form (for quality, in which this feature is permanent);
non-permanent morphological features of the adjective:
- qualitative adjectives change according to the degree of comparison (in comparative degrees simple form, in superlatives - complex): beautiful-beautiful-most beautiful;
- full or short form (only qualitative adjectives);
- genus sign (only in the singular);
- number (consistent with the noun);
- case (consistent with the noun);
syntactic role in the sentence: the adjective is a definition or part of a compound nominal predicate.

Plan of morphological analysis of the adjective

Suggestion example:

The full moon rose over the city.

Full (what?) - adjective;

initial form - complete;
permanent morphological features of the adjective: qualitative, full form;
inconstant morphological characteristic: in a positive (zero) degree of comparison, feminine (consistent with the noun), nominative case;
according to syntactic analysis - a minor member of the sentence, performs the role of a definition.

Here is another whole literary passage and a morphological analysis of the adjective, using examples:

The girl was beautiful: slender, thin, blue eyes, like two amazing sapphires, looked into your soul.

Beautiful (what?) - adjective;

the initial form is beautiful (in this sense);
constant morphological norms: qualitative, short;
non-permanent signs: positive degree of comparison, singular, feminine;

Slender (what?) - adjective;

initial form - slender;
permanent morphological features: qualitative, complete;
inconstant morphological characteristics of the word: full, positive degree of comparison, singular, feminine, nominative;
syntactic role in the sentence: part of the predicate.

Thin (what?) - adjective;

the initial form is thin;
morphological permanent features: qualitative, complete;
inconstant morphological characteristic of the adjective: positive degree of comparison, singular, feminine, nominative;
syntactic role: part of the predicate.

Blue (what?) - adjective;

initial form - blue;
table of constant morphological features of the adjective: qualitative;
inconsistent morphological characteristics: complete, positive degree of comparison, plural, nominative;
syntactic role: definition.

Amazing (what?) - adjective;

initial form - amazing;
permanent signs in morphology: relative, expressive;
inconsistent morphological features: plural, genitive;
syntactic role in the sentence: part of the circumstance.

Morphological features of the verb

According to the morphology of the Russian language, the verb is an independent part of speech. It can denote an action (to walk), a property (to limp), an attitude (to equal), a state (to rejoice), a sign (to turn white, show off) of an object. Verbs answer the question what to do? what to do? what is he doing? what have you been doing? or what will it do? Different groups of verbal word forms are characterized by heterogeneous morphological characteristics and grammatical features.

Morphological forms of verbs:

the initial form of the verb is the infinitive. It is also called the indefinite or invariable form of the verb. Variable morphological features are absent;
conjugated (personal and impersonal) forms;
non-conjugated forms: participles and participles.

Morphological analysis of the verb

the initial form is the infinitive;
constant morphological features of the verb:
- transitivity:
- - transitive (used with accusative nouns without a preposition);
  - intransitive (not used with a noun in the accusative case without a preposition);
- returnability:
- - returnable (there are -sya, -sya);
  - irrevocable (no -sya, -sya);
- - imperfect (what to do?);
  - perfect (what to do?);
- conjugation:
- - I conjugation (do-eat, do-et, do-eat, do-et, do-yut / ut);
  - II conjugation (sto-ish, sto-it, sto-im, sto-ite, sto-yat / at);
  - conjugated verbs (want, run);
non-permanent morphological features of the verb:
- mood:
- - indicative: what did you do? What did you do? what is he doing? what will he do?;
  - conditional: what would you do? what would you do?;
  - imperative: do it!;
- time (in the indicative mood: past / present / future);
- person (in the present/future tense, indicative and imperative: 1st person: I/we, 2nd person: you/you, 3rd person: he/they);
- gender (in the past tense, singular, indicative and conditional);
- number;
syntactic role in a sentence. The infinitive can be any part of the sentence:
- predicate: To be a holiday today;
- Subject: Learning is always useful;
- addition: All the guests asked her to dance;
- definition: He has an overwhelming desire to eat;
- circumstance: I went out for a walk.

Morphological analysis of the verb example

To understand the scheme, we will conduct a written analysis of the morphology of the verb using the example of a sentence:

Crow somehow God sent a piece of cheese ... (fable, I. Krylov)

Sent (what did you do?) - part of speech verb;

initial form - send;
permanent morphological features: perfective, transitional, 1st conjugation;
inconstant morphological characteristic of the verb: indicative mood, past tense, masculine, singular;

Next online sample morphological analysis verb in a sentence:

What silence, listen.

Listen (what to do?) - verb;

the initial form is to listen;
morphological constant features: perfect form, intransitive, reflexive, 1st conjugation;
inconstant morphological characteristics of the word: imperative, plural, 2nd person;
syntactic role in the sentence: predicate.

Plan for the morphological analysis of the verb online for free, based on an example from a whole paragraph:

He needs to be warned.

No need, let him know another time how to break the rules.

What are the rules?

Wait, I'll tell you later. Has entered! (“The Golden Calf”, I. Ilf)

Warn (what to do?) - verb;

initial form - warn;
morphological features of the verb are constant: perfective, transitive, irrevocable, 1st conjugation;
non-permanent morphology of the part of speech: infinitive;
syntactic function in a sentence: an integral part of the predicate.

Let him know (what is he doing?) - part of speech verb;

the initial form is to know;
inconstant morphology of the verb: imperative, singular, 3rd person;
syntactic role in the sentence: predicate.

Violate (what to do?) - the word is a verb;

the initial form is to violate;
permanent morphological features: imperfective, irrevocable, transitional, 1st conjugation;
non-permanent signs of the verb: infinitive (initial form);
syntactic role in the context: part of the predicate.

Wait (what to do?) - part of speech verb;

initial form - wait;
permanent morphological features: perfect form, irrevocable, transitional, 1st conjugation;
inconstant morphological characteristic of the verb: imperative mood, plural, 2nd person;
syntactic role in the sentence: predicate.

Entered (what did?) - verb;

initial form - enter;
permanent morphological features: perfective, irrevocable, intransitive, 1st conjugation;
inconstant morphological characteristic of the verb: past tense, indicative mood, singular, masculine;
syntactic role in the sentence: predicate.

§ 143. Phraseology, the phraseological composition of any language is a kind of system or subsystem. The units of this system, i.e. phraseological units, or phraseological units, differ and can be classified according to different features - semantic, or structural-semantic, primarily according to the degree of semantic cohesion of the components, grammatical (morphological and syntactic), stylistic, etc.

"The phraseological composition of the language is classified on various grounds: structural-semantic, grammatical, functional-stylistic. At the same time, the leading one in Ph. (i.e. phraseology. - V.N.) is the structural-semantic principle of classification, dating back to the classification of V. V. Vinogradov and based on the criteria of semantic solidarity or analyticity of the meaning of phraseological units.

§ 144. Depending on the degree of semantic fusion, cohesion of components, following V. V. Vinogradov, three types of phraseological units are distinguished: phraseological fusions, phraseological combinations and phraseological units. Η. M. Shansky supplemented this classification of phraseological units with another type, which he called phraseological expressions.

Phraseological unions is called "a type of phraseological units, absolutely indivisible, indecomposable, the meaning of which is completely independent of their lexical composition, of the meanings of their components, and is just as conditional and arbitrary as the meaning of an unmotivated word-sign." In other words, these are "such semantically indivisible phraseological turns in which the integral meaning is completely inconsistent with the individual meanings of the words that make them up." Some examples: beat the buckets, rub the glasses, the lip is not a fool, a Kazan orphan, how to give a drink, all right, the hour is uneven, headlong, how much in vain, on your mind, slipshod, eat a dog, sharpen lyasy, in the middle of nowhere, than light .

The term "idiom" is sometimes used to denote phraseological units of this type. This term is inconvenient because it is ambiguous: some linguists use it to refer to all semantically indivisible phraseological units, i.e. phraseological fusions and phraseological units (see below about them); sometimes it is also used as an absolute synonym for the term "phraseologism", i.e. to designate phraseological units of any of the above types.

Phraseological combinations differ from phraseological fusions in that each of their lexical components (each significant word) expresses a separate meaning and the general meaning of a phraseological unit is partially motivated by the semantics of individual components. "It is typical for a phraseological combination that its lexical components ... are felt as separate words that have their own special meaning. True, one of the words that make up the phraseological combination is used in a non-free, connected meaning and, therefore, not quite independently." Examples: white verses, bosom friend, sworn enemy, pitch hell, weeping willow, sudden death, bitter frost, black bread, ticklish question, frown, bleed your nose, bare your teeth, goggle your eyes.(The term "phraseological combination" should not be confused with the name of the generic concept "phraseological phrase".)

Phraseological units are phraseological units that formally correlate with free phrases and are semantically motivated by the latter. This is "a type of stable, close phraseological groups, which (like phraseological fusions) are also semantically indivisible and are also an expression of a single, holistic meaning, but in which this holistic meaning is motivated, being a work arising from the fusion of the meanings of lexical components."

Examples: green Street(figurative designation of a free path), a drop in the sea(a tiny fraction of something) the first pancake is lumpy(about the unsuccessful beginning of any business), first swallow(about the first signs of manifestation of something), seven fridays on the pedal(about someone who often changes their decisions, moods), to make mountains out of molehills(exaggerate), keep a stone in one's bosom(hold a grudge against someone) throw a bait(cautious conversations to find out, find out something), bury talent in the ground(destroy your ability) plug into the belt(to surpass someone in something) put your teeth on the shelf(hungry, needy) muddy the waters(intentionally confusing a matter, circumstance), dance to someone else's tune(unquestioningly do someone else's will), ride on crows(ballot a candidate) reel in the bait(leaving somewhere, hastily leaving a place), bend into a ram's horn(make submissive) pull the strap(to engage in heavy, monotonous, unpleasant business), scratch your tongue(talk, gossip). Similar phrases "are equally possible as phraseological units (then it will be figurative expressions), and as ordinary free combinations of words (then these words will be used in their direct, nominative, meanings)". (Nc, the terms "phraseological unity" and "phraseological unit" should be confused.)

To phraseological expressions include semantically segmented stable phrases consisting of words with free meanings and used in the direct meaning. "Phraseological expressions should be called phraseological phrases that are stable in their composition and use, which are not only semantically articulated, but also consist entirely of words with free meanings ...", for example: higher educational institution, party card, socialist competition, labor successes, at this stage, All ages are submissive to love, Man – it sounds proud, afraid of wolves – do not go into the forest, Not all that glitters is gold.

As can be seen from the above examples, phraseological expressions in some ways resemble phraseological units, on the one hand, and free phrases, on the other. They differ from free phrases in semantic integrity, lexical impenetrability and reproducibility in speech, which is typical for all phraseological units in general. "The main specific feature that delimits phraseological expressions from free combinations of words is that in the process of communication they are not formed by speakers, like the latter, but are reproduced as ready-made units with a constant composition and meaning." They differ from phraseological units in that they are used in their direct meaning.

The degree of semantic solidarity of lexical components of phraseological units of different types is largely determined by the ratio of words with free and non-free, phraseologically related meaning. Phraseological fusions have different lexical components (significant words) that have phraseologically related meanings, which ensures the maximum semantic coherence of the components of a phraseological unit, the absolute indivisibility of its meaning. Phraseological combinations "have words with both free and related use", and this means that the degree of cohesion of the components of such phraseological units is lower than that of phraseological fusions. Phraseological units and phraseological expressions "consist entirely of words with free meanings", while the former are generally used figuratively, their "indecomposable meaning ... arises as a result of the merging of the meanings of their individual parts in a single generalized figurative semantics of the whole", while while the latter are used in their direct meaning, in general meaning they "do not differ in any way from free phrases."

§ 145. According to grammatical features, phraseological units are divided, first of all, into phraseological units equivalent to a word and phraseological units equivalent to a sentence.

Among the phraseological units equivalent to the word, in turn, there are phraseological units that correspond to the words different parts speech: phraseological units equivalent to nouns, or substantive (for example: white mushroom, railway, bosom friend)] phraseological units equivalent to verbs, or verbal (beat the buckets, pull the strap, make an elephant out of a fly and etc.); phraseological units equivalent to adverbs, or adverbs (headlong, slipshod, how to drink to give etc.).

The above terms (substantive phraseological units, verbal phraseological units, adverbial phraseological units) are also used to distinguish between phraseological units according to the part of speech of the main, supporting word: phraseological units are called substantive, in which the supporting word is a noun, verbal - phraseological units with a supporting word related to the verb, etc.

Phraseologisms equivalent to a sentence, i.e. used as whole sentences are represented in Russian by such units as, for example: Case of tobacco, Seven Fridays in the week, Cards on the table! Hell! Hell no! They can also include proverbs, sayings, aphorisms, catchphrases (if we consider them as phraseological units), for example: In a still pool, devils are found, The first pancake is lumpy, Appetite comes with eating.

§ 146. Phraseological units are differentiated in stylistic terms. Along with stylistically neutral phraseological units ( white mushroom, black box, part of speech, instrumental, subjunctive mood etc.) colloquial phraseological units are possible (for example: bosom friend, climb on the rampage, get into trouble, goggle), colloquial (for example: chatting, fooling around, plugging the belt, sharpening balusters, scratching the tongue, Tobacco business, Hell with two) etc.

§ 147. Some linguists draw attention to the possibility of classifying phraseological units depending on their origin, suggest dividing them according to this feature into native and borrowed ones, including calques and semi-calques, i.e. derived expressions built (in whole or in part) from elements of a given language, modeled on the corresponding expressions in another language.

The actual borrowings include such phraseological units, sometimes used in the Russian language, such as: alma mater(lat., about higher educational institution where the speaker studied, literally "mother-nurse"), homo sapiens(Latin, about a person, as opposed to an ape or other animal, literally " thinking person"), terra incognita(Latin, about something unknown, unexplored, literally "unknown, uncharted land"), volens nolens(Latin, like it or not, literally "willy-nilly"), bonne mine au mauvais jeu(French, refers to trying to hide annoyance, disappointment at failure, literally "a cheerful face at a bad game"; cf .: make a good expression with a bad game) etc. In the process of assimilation by a borrowing language of such phraseological units, the latter can turn ("merge") into words of complex origin, for example, Russian perpetuum mobile(cf. Latin perpetuum mobile- "perpetual motion machine"), tete-a-tete(cf. French tete a tete, Literally "head to head")

As examples of cripples, we can cite some phraseological units that are scientific (linguistic) terms: parts of speech partes orationis and Greek ta tege si logu), noun(literal translation of Latin nomen substantive, cf. nomen -"name" and substo-"I exist, I am available" substantia-"essence"), adjective(literal translation of Latin nomen adjectivum, cf. adjitio-"I add, I add, I add").

§ 148. The types of phraseological units considered above can be distinguished in many languages, at least Indo-European ones. At the same time, there are noticeable differences between equivalent phraseological units of different languages that belong to the same type. These differences relate, in particular, to the lexical semantics of individual components of phraseological units that are identical in general meaning. On this basis, three main types of relationships between equivalent phraseological units of different languages can be distinguished:

1) phraseological units correlative in common meaning in different languages consist of components identical in lexical meanings, for example: coal, Ukrainian kam "yane vugillya, Polish wqgel kamienny, Czech cateppe uhlr, white coal (water energy), German Weijie Kohl; throw a bait german die Angel auswerfen nach; Feeding the wolf's feet Lithuanian Vilkq kojos peni; Where thin, it breaks, Lithuanian Kur trumpa, ten trvksta; I came, I saw, I conquered latin Veni, vidi, vici(the famous saying of Julius Caesar, literally translated into different languages);
2) phraseological units partially coincide in the semantics of lexical components, for example: spitting father, French c "est sonpere tout crache(literally "this is his father completely spit out"); in a personal meeting, german un- ter vier Augen(literally "between the four eyes"); They cut the forest - the chips fly, Lithuanian Be skiedros medzio nenukirsi(literally "you can't cut down a tree without a chip"); Steam doesn't break bones Lithuanian Stluma kaulö nelauzo(literally "warmth does not break bones"); Not gods burn pots, Lithuanian Ne sventiejipuodus lipdo(literally "ns make holy pots");
3) phraseological units are completely different in this respect, i.e. do not have lexical components identical in their meanings, for example: through the sleeves French tant bien que mal(literally "as good as bad"); in a personal meeting, English face to face(literally "face to face"); French tele a tete(literally "head with head"); dressed to the brim, French etre tire ά quatre epingles(literally "to be strung on four pins"); Romanian sa scos din cutie(literally "as if pulled out of a box"), etc.

Many phraseological units used in certain languages, in other languages, correspond in meaning to individual words, usually derivatives, mostly complex ones. Some examples: Railway, Czech zelezn "ce(cf. Zelezo-"iron", zelezny-"iron"), German Eisenbahn(cf. Eisen -"iron" and Bahn-"road, path"), Lithuanian gelezinkelis(cf. gelezis-"iron", gelezinis-"iron" and kelias-"way"); coal, german Steinkohl(cf. Stein-"stone" and Kohle- "coal"); Part of speech, german redeteil(cf. rede- "speech" and Te.il-"part"); nominative, Polish mianownik(cf. miano- name, surname mr-anovac" –"call, name"), Lithuanian vardininkas(cf. vardas- "name, title, denomination"), German nomination, French nominati/, Spanish nominative; subjunctive mood, german Subjunctiv, Konjunktiv, French subjonctif, Spanish subjuntivo etc.

Phraseology- a section of the science of the Russian language that studies linguistic units that are complex in composition and have a stable character (puzzle, exaggerate, the cat cried, worth its weight in gold), their types and functioning in speech. The word "phraseology" also denotes the totality of all phraseological units available in the Russian language. Along with the established view of phraseology as a science of stable turns of speech, its extended interpretation as a branch of linguistics that studies the lexical-semantic compatibility of words is becoming more widespread. [Rosenthal D.E. Reference book of linguistic terms. M., 1972, p. 469] The word "phraseology" comes from two Greek words: phrasis - expression and logos - concept, doctrine.

Phraseologism- this is an independent nominative unit of the language, which is a stable combination of words that expresses a holistic phraseological meaning and is comparable in function with individual words: like words, phraseological units serve as names for objects, phenomena, signs, actions and states, for example: rainy day - grief; confuse - confuse; not from a timid dozen - bold; through a stump-deck - somehow; brand new - new; like - like, etc. Since the combinations in their origin are closely related to the conditions of place and time, with any given case, they are individual and original in each language and cannot be literally translated. Therefore, they are also called idioms (from the Greek idioma - "special property"). [Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. M., 2002]

The phraseology often also includes proverbs, sayings, popular expressions: the truth is good, but happiness is better; took up the tug, do not say that it is not hefty; and Vaska listens and eats; at the dawn of a misty youth; Man - it sounds proud, etc.

The most important property of phraseological units is their reproducibility, i.e. the ability of a given unit to be used repeatedly to name the same fact in different situations.

Phraseologisms, unlike ordinary lexical units (words), firstly, are complex in composition, i.e. contain multiple elements that have the same meaning. They can be replaced with one word: for example, after the sleeves - carelessly, the cat cried - not enough. Phraseologisms, as a rule, have a constancy of composition (one word cannot be replaced by another). Phraseologisms usually have a stable grammatical form: for example, the phraseologism warm hands cannot be replaced with warm hands or warm hands.

Most phraseological units are characterized by impenetrable structure: it is not allowed to include new words in them. So, knowing the phraseological units to lower your head, lower your eyes, you cannot say “lower your head”, “lower your sad gaze even lower”. However, there are also such phraseological units that allow the insertion of separate clarifying words: for example, inflame passions - incite fatal passions, lather your head - lather your head well. In some phraseological units, it is possible to skip one or more components. For example, they say to go through fire and water, cutting off the end of a phraseological unit and copper pipes, or to drink a cup to the bottom instead of drinking a bitter cup to the bottom.

Most phraseological units have a stable word order. For example, it is impossible to swap words in expressions neither light nor dawn; beaten unbeaten lucky; everything flows, everything changes, although the meaning would not seem to be affected if we said "everything changes, everything flows." At the same time, in some phraseological units, a change in word order is possible (cf .: take water in your mouth - take water in your mouth, do not leave a stone on a stone - do not leave a stone on a stone). The rearrangement of components is usually allowed in phraseological units consisting of a verb and nominal forms that depend on it. [Golub I.B. Stylistics of the modern Russian language. M., 1976]

An important feature of phraseology is metaphor, figurativeness. It should be emphasized that phraseologism appears in the language not for naming objects, features, actions, but for their figurative-emotional characteristics. A phraseologism is formed as a result of metaphorical transfer, rethinking the meanings of free phrases. Phraseological units of the Russian language are micro-images, linguistic figurative miniatures. N.M. Shansky characterizes them as "miniature works of art".

The emotionality of phraseology is the ability of a phraseological unit not only to name an object, a phenomenon, but also to express certain feelings and assessments of the author.

Appraisal phraseological units - a quality derived from their emotional meaning. From the point of view of evaluativeness, phraseological units can be divided into two groups: phraseological units with a positive assessment and a negative one. The first group will include phraseological units with the emotionality of approval: a star of the first magnitude, blood with milk; respectful respect: rise from the ashes, lay down your head; admiration: a knight without fear and reproach, Prometheus fire, ruler of thoughts. The second group will include phraseological units with the emotionality of irony: a storehouse of wisdom, carry water with a sieve; scorn: clerical rat, muslin lady, etc.

expressiveness is the intensity of the manifestation of an action or sign. For example, phraseology where Makar did not drive calves means not just far, but very far, to the most remote places; phraseologism damn death means not just a lot, but a lot, great amount. Phraseologisms enter into synonymous and antonymic relations, for example: a cat cried a synonym for a phraseological unit with a gulkin's nose, leave it with a nose - circle it around your finger - hang noodles on your ears, one field of berries - two boots of steam, a shot sparrow - grated kalach. Phraseologisms-antonyms: no blood on the face - blood with milk, the cat cried - chickens do not peck.

Phraseological units, like ordinary words, are polysemantic. For example, fooling around means doing nothing, messing around, and also doing stupid things, behaving frivolously. There are phraseological units that have only one meaning: first of all, these are phraseological terms: fulcrum, center of gravity, specific gravity. In public speech, they can also be used in a figurative sense.

It is believed that phraseological units can be changed only in a journalistic style of speech. In neutral speech, the modification of a phraseological unit is considered a mistake.