Persian king Xerxes I (born around 519 BC - death in 465 BC) King of the Achaemenid state (486 BC). He led the Persian campaign in Greece (480–479 BC), which ended in defeat and marked the end of the first stage.
After the death of Darius I Hystaspes, his son, Xerxes I, ascended the Achaemenid throne. The new king of kings immediately faced military problems. The huge state was restless. Some of the provinces went out of control. 484 BC e. The Persian king Xerxes was forced to go to pacify rebellious Egypt. Then news came of the uprising in Babylon. The Persian army invaded Mesopotamia, destroyed fortifications, plundered temples and destroyed the main shrine of the Babylonians - the statue of the god Marduk.
The successful pacification of the rebellious may have turned Xerxes's head, and he began to think about seizing new territories. Xerxes fully inherited his father's hatred of the Greeks. But, remembering Darius’s failures and being very cautious, he did not rush. The King of Kings thought for a long time, and his entourage was perplexed: they were convinced that small Hellas, on whose territory there were many city-states, would not be able to withstand the power of the huge Persian army.
In the end, the king called those close to him for advice. He outlined to them his plans for the construction of a huge pontoon bridge across the Hellespont (modern Dardanelles). The Persian king Xerxes intended not only to fulfill his father’s behest and conquer Greece. He intended to turn all states into one, that is, to achieve world domination. The military leaders could not help but support Xerxes’ idea. In the eastern despotism, which was the Achaemenid state, it was not customary to contradict the ruler. Those who had their own opinion could easily say goodbye not only to their position, but also to their heads.
Preparations for the campaign continued for four years. Finally, the titanic work of constructing the bridge was completed. Persian troops were already ready to cross into Europe. However, a terrible storm destroyed the gigantic structure. Then the king ordered to cut off the heads of the builders, among whom the overwhelming majority were Phoenicians and Egyptians subject to the Persians. In addition, by order of the formidable ruler, the strait was cut out with a whip, and shackles were thrown into the sea. At that distant time, people still animated natural objects, and the king sincerely believed that the rebellious strait, after punishment, would feel the full force of the wrath of the great Xerxes.
The bridge was rebuilt. In addition to the fact that ships could now safely bypass the dangerous place in the strait, a canal was dug. To do this, they dug up a whole mountain. The Persian king Xerxes had plenty of human resources: 20 satrapies-provinces regularly supplied labor.
480 BC e., August - the troops safely crossed to Europe. For 7 days and nights, the troops marched across the bridge without stopping. Persians, Assyrians, Parthians, Khorezmians, Sogdians, Bactrians, Indians, Arabs, Ethiopians, Egyptians, Thracians, Libyans, Phrygians, Cappadocians, inhabitants of the Caucasus - this is an incomplete list of peoples who were part of Xerxes' army.
According to Herodotus, in the army of Xerxes there were 1 million 700 thousand infantry, 80 thousand horsemen and 20 thousand camels, auxiliary troops. The total number of warriors, in his opinion, reached more than five million people. In reality, according to scientists, the number of troops did not exceed 100 thousand, but even this figure at that time could be considered huge. In addition, the ground forces were supported by a fleet of 700–800 ships.
Xerxes had no doubt about victory. Well, what could the Greeks oppose to his military might? Smiling smugly, he declared: “In my army, everyone is under the control of one person. The whip will drive them into battle, the fear of me will make them brave. If I command, everyone will do the impossible. Are the Greeks, who talk about freedom, capable of this? However, it was precisely this desire for freedom that helped the Hellenes survive the brutal struggle with the most powerful empire of that time.
Having entered the land of Hellas, the king first of all tried to ensure that news of his progress reached the Greek cities as quickly as possible. For this purpose, the first Greek spies who were caught were not executed, but were released, showing the army and fleet. Ambassadors were sent to the policies demanding “land and water.” But the Persian king did not send anyone to the hated Athens and Sparta, making it clear to their inhabitants that there would be no mercy for them. But Xerxes’ expectations were not justified: only Thessaly and Boeotia agreed to recognize his power. The rest began to prepare to fight back.
Athenian strategist Themistocles, elected in 482 BC. e., in a short time was able to create a powerful fleet. He, as Plutarch wrote, “put an end to the internecine wars in Hellas and reconciled the individual states among themselves, convincing them to put aside hostility in view of the war with Persia.”
According to the Allied plan, they decided to give battle to the enemy on land and at sea. 300 triremes were sent to Cape Artemisia on the coast of Euboea, and the army led by them moved to Thessaly. Here, in the Thermopylae gorge, the Greeks expected a formidable enemy.
Xerxes waited 4 days for news of the naval battle. When it became known that half of his fleet had been scattered by a storm, and the rest had suffered heavy losses and could not break through to the coast, the king sent scouts to find out what the Greeks were doing. He hoped that they, seeing the superiority of the enemy, would retreat. However, the Greeks stubbornly remained in place. Then Xerxes moved his army. Sitting in a chair, he watched the progress from the top of the mountain. The Greeks continued to stand. The “immortals” were thrown into battle, but they too could not achieve success.
It became clear that the position of the Greeks was extremely advantageous, and their courage had no limits. Perhaps the Persian king Xerxes would have had to look for another way, but among the local residents there was a traitor who, for a reward, showed the Persians a bypass path. The defenders of the gorge noticed that they were surrounded. The Greek commander, King Leonidas, released the allies. 300 Spartans, 400 Thebans and 700 Thespians remained with him. After a fierce battle, they all died. The enraged Xerxes ordered the body of Leonidas to be found. He was beheaded and his head was impaled on a spear.
The Persian army advanced to Athens. Themistocles convinced his fellow citizens to leave the city. He was sure that the Athenians would take revenge not on land, but on the sea. But not all allies agreed with the opinion of their commander. Endless bickering began. Then the strategist sent his slave to Xerxes, who again waited, hoping for disagreements in the enemy camp. The slave told Xerxes that the Hellenes were going to retreat at night, and Themistocles wanted to go over to the side of the Persians and advised them to launch an offensive right away at night.
Xerxes showed unforgivable gullibility. Apparently, he was so confident in his own strength that he did not even think about a possible trap. The Persian king ordered the fleet to close all exits from the Strait of Salamis so that not a single enemy ship could escape from it. Themistocles wanted to achieve this: now the ships of the Spartans and Corinthians could not leave the Athenians. It was decided to give battle.
(480 BC) 1000 Persian ships and 180 Greek ships took part. On the shore, under a gilded canopy, the Persian king Xerxes sat on a throne, watching the progress of the battle. Nearby were courtiers and scribes who were supposed to describe the great victory of the Persians. But the clumsy Persian ships, forced to operate in a narrow strait, were greatly inferior to the fast Greek triremes. The latter went to ram and easily dodged the enemy.
As a result, most of Xerxes' fleet was sunk. The bulk of the Persians who could not swim drowned. Those who reached the shore were destroyed by Greek infantry. Eventually the Persians fled. The surviving ships were destroyed by the inhabitants of Aegina, who ambushed them.
The remnants of the Persian army moved to the bridge over the Hellespont. Themistocles wanted to destroy it, but heeded the advice of the former strategist of Athens, Aristides. He believed that the trapped Persian soldiers would fight desperately and many Greeks would die.
They say that the king of kings returned home on a ship that was extremely crowded. During a strong storm, the helmsman turned to him: “Sir! We need to lighten the ship!” - and the king gave the order to his subjects to leave the ship. They themselves began to throw themselves overboard, where inevitable death awaited them, not knowing how to swim. Having safely reached the shore, Xerxes presented the helmsman with a gold ring for saving his life and immediately... ordered the savior’s head to be cut off for having killed so many Persians.
But not the entire Persian army left Hellas. By order of Xerxes, troops were left in Thessaly to spend the winter and continue the war in the spring. 479 BC e. - A major battle took place near the city of Plataea in Boeotia. The famous Persian commander Mardonius fell there, with whose death the Persians were finally broken and left the Peloponnesian Peninsula. The first stage of the Greco-Persian wars was finally completed.
Xerxes had to give up his dreams of world domination forever. His destiny was to exalt the capital of Persepolis. The construction of the palace, begun under Darius, was completed, and a new one was built, and the construction of the throne room of one hundred columns began.
Meanwhile, at court there was a tireless struggle for influence. The courtiers and even members of Xerxes' family never ceased to weave intrigues. Xerxes became increasingly suspicious. One day, when the queen reported that his brother was preparing an assassination attempt, the king ordered his entire family to be destroyed.
The courtiers especially could not count on the king’s pity. Apparently, because in the summer of 465 BC. e. Xerxes and his eldest son were killed by conspirators led by the minister Artabanus. Another son of the king, Artaxerxes I, ascended the throne, but the golden age of the Achaemenid dynasty passed into the past along with the warlike Persian king Xerxes I, who firmly entered history.
In all likelihood there were several uprisings. The Babylonians initially rebelled under the leadership of Belshimanni. It is possible that this uprising began under Darius, under the influence of the defeat of the Persians at Marathon. The rebels captured, in addition to Babylon, the cities of Borsippa and Dilbat. In two cuneiform documents found in Borsippa, dated "the beginning of the reign of Bel-shimanni, king of Babylon and the Lands." The witnesses who signed this contract are the same as those found on documents from the second half of the reign of Darius and the first year of Xerxes. Obviously, Belshimanni rebelled against Darius and took the daring title of “King of the Countries,” which the False Buchadnezzars had not yet encroached upon. But two weeks later in July 484 BC. e. this uprising was suppressed.
Crossing the Hellespont
Warriors of Xerxes' army. Reconstruction based on the description of Herodotus, archaeological finds and drawings on Greek vases. From left to right: Persian standard bearer, Armenian and Cappadocian warriors.
Warriors of Xerxes' army.
From left to right: Chaldean infantry formed the first rank of the Persian phalanx of archers; Babylonian archer; Assyrian infantryman. The warriors wore quilted jackets stuffed with horsehair - a characteristic type of eastern armor of that time.
Warriors of Xerxes' army from Asia Minor. On the left is a hoplite from Ionia, whose weapons are very reminiscent of the Greek ones, but he is wearing a soft quilted armor, widespread among Asian peoples (in this case, Greek cut); on the right is a Lydian hoplite in a bronze cuirass and a peculiar frame helmet.
Warriors of Xerxes' army. Reconstruction based on the description of Herodotus and archaeological finds. From left to right: an Ethiopian warrior armed with a powerful bow, half of his body painted white; infantryman from Khorezm, Bactrian infantryman; Arian cavalryman.
Battle of Thermopylae
Fleet actions
Sack of Attica
The Persians could now move unhindered into Attica. Boeotia submitted to the Persians, and Thebes subsequently provided them with active support. The Greek land army stood on the Isthmus, and Sparta insisted on creating a fortified defensive line here to protect the Peloponnese. The Athenian politician, creator of the Athenian fleet, Themistocles, believed that it was necessary to give the Persians a naval battle off the coast of Attica. It was undoubtedly not possible to defend Attica at that moment.
The situation in the State
These failures in the Greco-Persian wars intensified the process of collapse of the Achaemenid power. Already under Xerxes, symptoms dangerous to the existence of the state appeared - rebellions of the satraps. Thus, his own brother Masista fled from Susa to his satrapy Bactria with the aim of raising an uprising there, but on the way, warriors loyal to the king caught up with Masista and killed him along with all the sons accompanying him (c. 478 BC). Under Xerxes, intensive construction was carried out in Persepolis, Susa, Tushpa, on Mount Elwend near Ecbatana and in other places. To strengthen state centralization, he carried out a religious reform, which boiled down to prohibiting the veneration of local tribal gods and strengthening the cult of the pan-Iranian god Ahuramazda. Under Xerxes, the Persians stopped supporting local temples (in Egypt, Babylonia, etc.) and seized many temple treasures.
Murder of Xerxes as a result of conspiracy
According to Ctesias, towards the end of his life, Xerxes was under the strong influence of the chief of the royal guard, Artabanus, and the eunuch Aspamitra. Probably Xerxes' position at this time was not very strong. In any case, we know from Persepolis documents that in 467 BC. e. , that is, 2 years before the murder of Xerxes, famine reigned in Persia, the royal granaries were empty and grain prices increased seven times compared to usual. In order to somehow appease the dissatisfied, Xerxes dismissed about a hundred government officials over the course of a year, starting with the most senior ones. In August 465 BC. e. Artabanus and Aspamitra, apparently not without the machinations of Artaxerxes, the youngest son of Xerxes, killed the king at night in his bedroom. The exact date of this conspiracy is recorded in one astronomical text from Babylonia. Another text from Egypt states that he was killed along with his eldest son Darius.
Xerxes was in power for 20 years and 8 months and was killed in the 55th year of his life. About 20 cuneiform inscriptions in ancient Persian, Elamite and Babylonian languages have been preserved from the reign of Xerxes.
Wives and children
Queen Amestrida
- Darius
- Hystasp, satrap of Bactria
Unknown wives
- Aratrius, satrap of Babylon.
- Ratasap
| Achaemenids | ||
| Predecessor: | ||
The Persian king Xerxes I is one of the most famous characters in the ancient history of mankind. Actually, it was this ruler who led his troops to Greece in the first half of the 5th century. It was he who fought with the Athenian hoplites in the Battle of Marathon and with the Spartans in the very one that is widely promoted today in popular literature and cinema
Beginning of the Greco-Persian Wars
Persia at the very beginning of the 5th century was a young, but aggressive and already powerful empire that managed to conquer a number of eastern peoples. In addition to other territories, the Persian king Darius also took possession of some Greek colony-policies in (the territory of modern Turkey). During the years of Persian rule, the Greek population of the Persian satrapies - the so-called administrative territorial units of the Persian state - often rebelled, protesting against the new orders of the eastern conquerors. It was Athens' assistance to these colonies in one of these uprisings that led to the beginning of the Greco-Persian conflict.
Marathon Battle
The first general battle of the Persian landing and Greek troops (Athenians and Plataeans) took place in 490 BC. Thanks to the talent of the Greek commander Miltiades, who wisely used the hoplite formation, their long spears, as well as the sloping terrain (the Greeks pushed the Persians down the slope), the Athenians were victorious, stopping the first Persian invasion of their country. Interestingly, the modern sports discipline “marathon running”, which covers a distance of 42 km, is associated with this battle. This is exactly how far the ancient messenger ran from the battlefield to Athens to report the victory of his compatriots and then fall dead. Preparations for a more massive invasion were prevented by the death of Darius. The new Persian king Xerxes I ascended the throne, continuing his father’s work.
Battle of Thermopylae and three hundred Spartans
The second invasion began in 480 BC. King Xerxes led a large army of 200 thousand people (according to modern historians). Macedonia and Thrace were quickly conquered, after which an invasion began from the north into Boeotia, Attica and the Peloponnese. Even the coalition forces of the Greek city-states could not withstand such numerous forces gathered from the many peoples of the Persian Empire. The weak hope of the Greeks was the opportunity to take battle in a narrow place through which the Persian army passed on its way to the south - the Thermopylae Gorge. The enemy's numerical advantage here would not be so noticeable, which would leave no hope of victory. The legend that the Persian king Xerxes was almost beaten here by three hundred Spartan warriors is a bit of an exaggeration. In fact, from 5 to 7 thousand Greek soldiers from different policies, not only Spartan ones, took part in this battle. And given the width of the gorge, this amount was more than enough to successfully hold off the enemy for two days. The disciplined Greek phalanx held the line evenly, truly stopping the hordes of Persians. No one knows how the battle would have ended, but the Greeks were betrayed by one of the residents of the local village - Ephialtes. The man who showed the Persians a way around. When King Leonidas learned of the betrayal, he sent troops to the policies to regroup forces, remaining to defend and delay the Persians with a small detachment. Now there were really very few of them left - about 500 souls. However, no miracle happened; almost all the defenders were killed on the same day.
What happened next
The Battle of Thermopylae never accomplished the task that the Greek men had assigned to it, but it became an inspired example of heroism for other defenders of the country. The Persian king Xerxes I still managed to win here, but later suffered crushing defeats: at sea - a month later at Salamis, and on land - at the Battle of Plataea. The Greco-Persian War continued for the next thirty years as protracted, low-intensity conflicts, in which the odds increasingly leaned towards the poleis.
Herodotus "History":
“7.40 Ahead of the Persian army was a convoy and pack animals. Then detachments of different nationalities followed, interspersed, but in disorderly masses. When half of these hordes had managed to pass, a gap was formed and the road remained empty for some time.
The king was preceded by 1000 selected Persian horsemen, followed by 1000 spearmen (also selected) with spears facing down to the ground. Then came 10 sacred so-called Nisei horses in luxurious harness. This is why these horses are called Nisei. There is a vast plain in Media called Nisei. It is on this plain that such large horses are bred. Behind these 10 horses was the sacred chariot of Zeus, which was pulled by 8 white horses. Behind the horses themselves, the driver followed on foot, holding a bridle in his hands, since none of the people could climb onto the seat of this chariot. Behind this chariot rode Xerxes himself in a chariot drawn by Nisean horses. Next to the king stood a charioteer named Patiramphus, the son of the Persian Otanes.
7.41 ...Behind the king followed 1000 spearmen, the most valiant and noble Persians, holding their spears up as usual. Then came another 1,000 selected Persian horsemen, and after the horsemen 10,000 foot soldiers selected from the rest of the Persian army. Of these, 1,000 had golden pomegranate apples at the lower end of their spears. These warriors surrounded the others in a ring. The 9,000 warriors marching in the middle had silver pomegranates [on the lower ends of their spears]. Spearmen also had golden pomegranates with their spears facing down to the ground. Xerxes' immediate retinue had golden apples [instead of garnets]. These 10,000 were followed by 10,000 Persian cavalry. Behind the cavalry, a gap of 2 stages again formed and, finally, all the other discordant hordes followed.
7.60 How great the number of the hordes of each people was, I cannot say for sure, because no one reports about it. The total number of ground forces was 1,700,000 people (no comment). And the calculation was carried out as follows: they gathered 10,000 people into one place and, placing them as closely as possible to each other, drew a line around them. Having drawn a line, they released these 10,000 warriors and built a fence in a circle as high as a man’s navel. After that, they began to herd other tens of thousands of people into the fenced area, until everyone was counted in this way. The warriors were then distributed among tribes.
Artist Richard Scollins
7.61-88 ...The following nationalities took part in the campaign: first of all, the Persians, who were dressed and armed like this. On their heads they had so-called tiaras (soft [felt] hats), and on their bodies they had colorful tunics with sleeves made of iron scales like fish scales. Persians wore pants on their legs. Instead of [Hellenic] shields, they had wicker shields, under which hung quivers. They also had short spears, large bows with reed arrows, and, in addition, a dagger hung from their belt on their right hip. Their leader was Otan, the father of Xerxes’ wife Amestris….
...The Medes carry the same weapons on a campaign as the Persians (the weapons are, in fact, Median, not Persian). The leader of the Medes was Tigran from the Achaemenid family.
Artist Richard Scollins
...The Kissii also set out on the campaign in Persian weapons, only instead of [felt] hats they wore a miter. The Kissi were led by Anath, son of Otan. The Hyrcanians were also armed in the Persian style. Their leader was Megapan, later the ruler of Babylon.
During the campaign, the Assyrians wore copper helmets on their heads, uniquely woven in some difficult to explain way. They had shields, spears and daggers similar to the Egyptian ones, and, in addition, wooden clubs with iron cones and linen armor. The Hellenes call them Syrians, and the barbarians call them Assyrians. Their leader was Otasp, son of Artacheus.
The Bactrians wore hats on their heads, very similar to the Median ones, Bactrian reed bows and short spears. The Saki (Scythian tribe) wore high, pointed turbans on their heads, thick, so that they stood straight. They wore trousers and were armed with Saka bows and daggers. In addition, they also had sagaris - [double-edged] battle axes. This tribe (it was, in fact, Scythian) was called the Amirgian Sakas. The Persians call all Scythians Sakas. The Bactrians and Saca were led by Hystaspes, son of Darius and Atossa, daughter of Cyrus.
The Indians set out on the campaign wearing cotton clothes and carrying reed bows and iron-tipped arrows. Such were the weapons of the Indians. Their leader was Pharnazafr, son of Artabatus.
The Aryans were armed with Median bows, and the rest of their weapons were Bactrian. The Aryans were led by Sisamnes, son of Hydarnes. The Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians, Gandarii and Dadiks went on campaign in the same weapons as the Bactrians. Their leaders were: among the Parthians and Horasmians - Artabazus, son of Pharnaces; among the Sogdians - Azan, son of Artey; among the Gandarii and Dadiks - Artifius, son of Artabanus.
The Caspians were dressed in goatskins and armed with [their] local reed bows and Persian swords. Such were their weapons, and their commander was Ariomard, the brother of Artithias. Sarangs sported colorfully painted clothes and knee-length boots. Their bows and spears were Median. Their leader was Ferendat, son of Megabazus. The Paktii wore goat skins and were armed with local bows and daggers. At the head of the Paktii was Artaint, the son of Ithamithra.
Artist Richard Scollins
The Utia, Miki and Paricania were armed like the pactia. Their leaders were: among the Utians - Arsamenes, son of Darius; among the Paricanii - Siromitra, son of Eobaz. The Arabs were dressed in long, highly tucked burnouses and carried very long curved back [flexible] bows on the right side. The Ethiopians wore leopard and lion skins. Their bows, made from palm stems, were at least 4 cubits long. Their arrows are small, made of reeds, and instead of an iron tip there is a sharp stone at the end, with which they cut stones on signet rings. In addition, they had spears with points made of antelope horn, sharpened into a tip. They also had clubs studded with iron cones. When going into battle, they painted half their bodies with chalk and the other with red lead. At the head of the Arabs and Ethiopians living south of Egypt was Arsam, the son of Darius and Artiston, daughter of Cyrus (Darius loved her more than all his wives and ordered her image to be made for himself from minted gold). So, the leader of the Ethiopians living south of Egypt and the Arabs was Arsam.
The eastern Ethiopians (two tribes of Ethiopians took part in the campaign) were annexed to the Indians. In appearance they were no different, except for their tongue and hair. So, Eastern Ethiopians have straight hair, but Libyans have the curliest hair in the world. These Asian Ethiopians were armed mainly in the Indian style, only on their heads they wore a horse skin, stripped off along with the ears and mane. The mane served instead of a plume, and the horse's ears stuck out straight. Instead of shields, they held crane skins in front of them as cover. The Libyans performed in leather robes with darts, the tips of which were burned in the fire. Their leader was Massages, son of Oariz.
The Paphlagonians went on campaign wearing wicker helmets, with small shields and small spears; in addition, they also had darts and daggers. Their feet were shod in local boots that reached the middle of their legs. The Lygians, Matienians, Mariandines and Syrians went on campaign in the same weapons as the Paphlagonians. The Persians call these Syrians Cappadocians. At the head of the Paphlagonians and Mathiens was Dotus, son of Megasider; The leader of the Mariandians, Ligiians and Syrians was Gobryas, the son of Darius and Artiston. The armament of the Phrygians was very similar to the Paphlagonian, with only a slight difference. According to the Macedonians, while the Phrygians lived with them in Europe, they were called brigians. And after moving to Asia, along with the change of location, they also changed their name to Phrygians. The Armenians, being immigrants from the Phrygian land, had Phrygian weapons. The leader of both was Artochmus, who was married to the daughter of Darius.
The armament of the Lydians was almost the same as that of the Hellenes. The Lydians in ancient times were called Meons, and received [their current name] from Lydas, the son of Atys. The Mysians wore local helmets on their heads; their weapons consisted of small shields and darts with a fire-burnt tip. The Mysians are immigrants from Lydia, and after Mount Olympus they are called Olympiens. The leader of the Lydians and Mysians was Artaphrenes, son of Artaphrenes, who, together with Datis, attacked Marathon. The Thracians wore fox hats on their heads during the campaign. They wore tunics on their bodies and colorful burnouses on top. They had reindeer skin wrappings on their legs and knees. They were armed with darts, slings and small daggers. After migrating to Asia, this tribe received the name Bithynians, and before, in their own words, they were called Strymonians, since they lived on Strymon. As they say, the Teucrians and Myians expelled them from their habitats.
Artist M. Sheinin
The leader of the Asiatic Thracians was Bassac, son of Artabanus. [...Pisidians] wear small shields made of raw ox hides. Each is armed with a hunting spear of Lycian workmanship, and on their heads they wear copper helmets; copper bull ears and horns are attached to the helmets, and plumes on top. Their legs were wrapped in red rags. The Kabalii are a Maeonian tribe, also called Lasonia, armed in the Cilician style (I will talk about this when I move on to the Cilician troops). The Milii had short spears and cloaks fastened [at the shoulder] with a buckle. Some of them wore Lycian bows and leather helmets on their heads. All these nations were led by Badr, the son of Gistan. The Moskhs had wooden helmets on their heads; they carried small shields and long-tipped spears. The Tibarenes, Macrones and Mossiniki went on the campaign armed, like the Moschi. Their leaders were: among the Moschians and Tibarens, Ariomard, son of Darius and Parmisa, daughter of Smerdis, granddaughter of Cyrus; among the Macronians and Mossinians, Artaictus, the son of Cherasmias, who was satrap on the Hellespont.
The Marys wore wicker native helmets on their heads. Their weapons are small leather shields and darts. The Colchs had wooden helmets on their heads; they carried small shields made of raw leather, short spears and, in addition, daggers. At the head of the Mars and Colchs was Farandat, the son of Teaspius. The Alarodii and Saspiri went on the campaign armed, like the Colchians. Their leader was Masistius, son of Siromitra. The tribes from the islands of the Red Sea (namely, from those islands where the king settled the so-called exiles) were dressed and armed completely in the Median style. The leader of these islanders was Mardont, son of Bagaeus, who two years later died at the head of the [Persian fleet] in . These peoples fought on land and formed a foot army.
... So, these people I named were the military leaders. At the head of them and the entire ground army were Mardonius, the son of Gobryas (who later commanded the Persians in ); Tritantehmus, son of Artabanus, who gave advice against the campaign against Hellas; Smerdomen, son of Otanes (both of them are sons of Darius' brothers, cousins of Xerxes); Maciste, son of Darius and Atossa; Gergis, son of Ariaz, and Megabyzus, son of Zopyrus. These were the commanders of the entire ground army, except for 10,000 Persians.
At the head of this detachment of 10,000 selected Persian warriors was Hydarnes, the son of Hydarnes. This detachment of Persians was called “immortals,” and here’s why. If someone suffered death or illness and he dropped out of this number, then another was chosen [in his place] and [therefore in the detachment] there were always exactly 10,000 warriors - no more and no less. Of all the nations, the Persians were the best in maintaining battle formation, and they were the most valiant. Their equipment was as I have already said, and in addition, they shone with a lot of luxurious gold jewelry. They were accompanied by carts with concubines and many servants in rich clothes. Food for them was carried (separately from other warriors) on camels and pack animals.
However, not all nationalities served in the cavalry [of Xerxes], but only the following: first of all, the Persians. They wore the same weapons as the foot soldiers, but only some had hammered copper and iron helmets on their heads. Among them there is a certain nomadic tribe called the Sagartii. By origin and language they are a Persian people, but their clothes are half Persian, half Paktian. They fielded 8,000 horsemen; According to custom, they have no bronze or iron weapons, except for daggers. Instead, they only have lassos woven from straps. They go into battle with these lassos. They fight like this: having met the enemy, they throw lassos with a noose and then drag to themselves whoever they catch - a horse or a man. People caught in the lasso die. In the battle, the Sagartians stood next to the Persians.
Artist Richard Scollins
The Median horsemen were equipped like their foot soldiers, and so were the Kissii. Indian horsemen wore the same equipment as foot soldiers, but rode not only on horses, but also in chariots drawn by horses and wild donkeys. The armament of the Bactrian horsemen was the same as that of the foot soldiers, and the same as that of the Caspians. And the Libyans had the same weapons as foot soldiers. All these nations also rode chariots. Caspians and Paricanians were armed in the same way as foot soldiers. The Arabs also had the same weapons as the foot soldiers, but they all rode camels, which were as fast as horses. Only these nationalities served in the cavalry. The number of cavalry was 80,000 horsemen, not counting camels and chariots. The horsemen [of other nationalities] were lined up in squadrons, while the Arab [horsemen] stood last. After all, the horses could not bear the camels, and so that the horses would not be frightened, they were placed behind. The commanders of the cavalry were Harmamithras and Typheus, sons of Datis. The third chief, Farnukh, fell ill and remained in Sardis.
The Persian king Xerxes I is one of the most famous characters in the ancient history of mankind. Actually, it was this ruler who led his troops to Greece in the first half of the 5th century. It was he who fought with the Athenian hoplites in the Battle of Marathon and with the Spartans in the very Battle of Thermopylae, widely promoted today in popular literature and cinema.
Marathon Battle
The first general battle of the Persian landing and Greek troops was the Battle of Marathon, which took place in 490 BC. Thanks to the talent of the Greek commander Miltiades, who wisely used the hoplite formation, their long spears, and sloping terrain, the Athenians were victorious, stopping the first Persian invasion of their country. Interestingly, the modern sports discipline of marathon running, which covers a distance of 42 km, is associated with this battle. This is exactly how far the ancient messenger ran from the battlefield to Athens to report the victory of his compatriots and then fall dead. Preparations for a more massive invasion were prevented by the death of Darius. The new Persian king Xerxes I ascended the throne, continuing his father’s work.
The second invasion began in 480 BC. King Xerxes led a large army of 200 thousand people. Macedonia and Thrace were quickly conquered, after which an invasion began from the north into Boeotia, Attica and the Peloponnese. Even the coalition forces of the Greek city-states could not withstand such numerous forces gathered from the many peoples of the Persian Empire. The weak hope of the Greeks was the opportunity to take battle in a narrow place through which the Persian army passed on its way to the south - the Thermopylae Gorge. The enemy's numerical advantage here would not be so noticeable, which would leave no hope of victory. The legend that the Persian king Xerxes was almost beaten here by three hundred Spartan warriors is a bit of an exaggeration. In fact, from 5 to 7 thousand Greek soldiers from different policies, not only Spartan ones, took part in this battle. And given the width of the gorge, this amount was more than enough to successfully hold off the enemy for two days. The disciplined Greek phalanx held the line evenly, truly stopping the hordes of Persians. No one knows how the battle would have ended, but the Greeks were betrayed by one of the residents of the local village, Ephialtes. The man who showed the Persians a way around. When King Leonidas learned of the betrayal, he sent troops to the policies to regroup forces, remaining to defend and delay the Persians with a small detachment. Now there really were very few of them left, about 500 souls. However, no miracle happened; almost all the defenders were killed on the same day.
In the first years of his reign, Xerxes was forced to strengthen his power, but above all he declared his loyalty to the moral and ethical principles previously formulated by his father. In 484 BC the king ruthlessly suppressed the uprising in Egypt and subsequently treated the country as a conquered province. The next rebellion in the summer of 484 BC. was the uprising of Babylon, which was suppressed only by March 481 BC. After the city was taken by storm, the city walls and the fortifications of Babylon were torn down, the main sanctuaries of the city were damaged, some of the priests were executed, and most importantly the golden statue of the supreme god Marduk was taken to Persepolis and probably melted down. This relegated Babylon to the position of a lower satrapy, and the capital of the Babylonian kingdom, which was formally considered separate and part of the Achaemenid Empire, lost its political significance.
Preparation and trip to Greece
In 483 BC Xerxes officially ordered the beginning of all necessary preparations for the expedition against the Greeks. So that the fleet does not become a victim of a storm, as happened in 492 BC. near Cape Athos, it was decided to dig a canal through a sandy isthmus in the eastern part of the Chalkidiki peninsula. On the Hellespont, near Abydos, 2 pontoon bridges about 1300 m long were built. All this work took about 3 years. In addition, food was procured and warehouses were established along the coast of Macedonia and Thrace. The military expedition began in 481 BC. when a huge Persian army led by the great king left Cappadocia and, having crossed Halys, arrived through Phrygia and Lydia to the Hellespont. However, another storm destroyed both bridges, and the angry Xerxes ordered the unruly sea to be scourged, and then shackles to be immersed in its waters. In the spring of 480 BC The Persian army, having crossed the strait without encountering any resistance, moved through Thrace, Macedonia and Thessaly. At Thermopylae on August 11, 480 BC. The Greeks and Persians faced off on land for the first time, while several battles also took place at sea. These battles showed Xerxes that conquering the Greeks would not be so easy. The following battles at Salamis, Plataea and Mycale forced the Persians to abandon the idea of capturing Greece. Xerxes himself, after the Battle of Salamis, was forced to urgently go east, because a new uprising began in Babylon.
According to Ctesias, towards the end of his life, Xerxes was under the strong influence of the chief of the royal guard, Artabanus, and the eunuch Aspamitra. Probably Xerxes' position at this time was not very strong. In any case, we know from Persepolis documents that in 467, i.e. 2 years before the murder of Xerxes, famine reigned in Persia, the royal granaries were empty and grain prices increased seven times compared to usual. In order to somehow appease the dissatisfied, Xerxes removed about a hundred government officials over the course of a year, starting with the most senior ones. In August 465, Artabanus and Aspamitra, apparently not without the machinations of Artaxerxes, the youngest son of Xerxes, killed the king at night in his bedroom. At the same time, Xerxes' eldest son Darius was killed.
Sources: fb.ru, www.vokrugsveta.ru, otvet.mail.ru, 900igr.net, istoria.kak-zachem.ru
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