Textbook: chapters 4, 8::: History of the Middle Ages: Early modern times
Chapter 8.
After the end of the Reconquista in 1492, the entire Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of Portugal, was united under the rule of the Spanish kings. The Spanish monarchs also owned Sardinia, Sicily, the Balearic Islands, the Kingdom of Naples and Navarre.
In 1516, after the death of Ferdinand of Aragon, Charles I ascended the Spanish throne. On his mother’s side, he was the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, and on his father’s side, he was the grandson of Emperor Maximilian I of Habsburg. From his father and grandfather, Charles I inherited the Habsburg possessions in Germany, the Netherlands and lands in South America. In 1519, he achieved his election to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation and became Emperor Charles V. Contemporaries, not without reason, said that in his domain “the sun never sets.” However, the unification of vast territories under the rule of the Spanish crown by no means completed the process of economic and political consolidation. The Aragonese and Castilian kingdoms, connected only by a dynastic union, remained politically divided throughout the 16th century: they retained their class-representative institutions - the Cortes, their legislation and judicial system. Castilian troops could not enter the lands of Aragon, and the latter was not obliged to defend the lands of Castile in the event of war. Within the Kingdom of Aragon itself, its main parts (especially Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia and Navarre) also retained significant political independence.
The fragmentation of the Spanish state was also manifested in the fact that there was no single political center; the royal court moved around the country, most often stopping in Valladolid. Only in 1605 did Madrid become the official capital of Spain.
Even more significant was the economic disunity of the country: individual regions differed sharply in the level of socio-economic development and had little connection with each other. This was largely facilitated by geographical conditions: mountainous landscape, lack of navigable rivers through which communication between the north and south of the country would be possible. The northern regions - Galicia, Asturias, the Basque Country - had almost no connection with the center of the peninsula. They conducted brisk trade with England, France and the Netherlands through the port cities of Bilbao, La Coruña, San Sebastian and Bayonne. Some areas of Old Castile and Leon gravitated towards this area, the most important economic center of which was the city of Burgos. The southeast of the country, especially Catalonia and Valencia, were closely connected with Mediterranean trade - there was a noticeable concentration of merchant capital here. The interior provinces of the Castilian kingdom gravitated towards Toledo, which for ancient times was a major center of crafts and trade.
The aggravation of the situation in the country at the beginning of the reign of Charles V.
The young king Charles I (1516 - 1555) was brought up in the Netherlands before ascending the throne. He spoke Spanish poorly, and his retinue and entourage consisted mainly of Flemings. In the early years, Charles ruled Spain from the Netherlands. His election to the imperial throne of the Holy Roman Empire, his journey to Germany and the expenses of his coronation required enormous funds, which placed a heavy burden on the Castilian treasury.
Seeking to create a “world empire,” Charles V, from the first years of his reign, viewed Spain primarily as a source of financial and human resources for pursuing imperial policy in Europe. The king's widespread involvement of Flemish confidants in the state apparatus, absolutist claims were accompanied by a systematic violation of the customs and liberties of Spanish cities and the rights of the Cortes, which caused discontent among wide sections of the burghers and artisans. The policy of Charles V, directed against the highest nobility, gave rise to mute protest, which at times grew into open discontent. In the first quarter of the 16th century. the activities of opposition forces concentrated around the issue of forced loans, which the king often resorted to from the first years of his reign.
In 1518, in order to pay off his creditors - the German bankers Fuggers - Charles V managed with great difficulty to obtain a huge subsidy from the Castilian Cortes, but this money was quickly spent. In 1519, in order to receive a new loan, the king was forced to accept the conditions put forward by the Cortes, among which was the requirement that the king not leave Spain, not appoint foreigners to government positions, and not delegate the collection of taxes to them. However, immediately after receiving the money, the king left Spain, appointing the Fleming Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht as governor.
Revolt of the urban communes of Castile (comuneros).
The king's violation of the signed agreement was the signal for an uprising of urban communes against royal power, called the "revolt of the communes" (1520-1522). After the king's departure, when the deputies of the Cortes, who had shown excessive compliance, returned to their cities, they were met with general indignation. In Segovia, artisans—clothmakers, day laborers, washers, and wool carders—revolted. One of the main demands of the rebel cities was to prohibit the import of woolen fabrics from the Netherlands into the country.
At the first stage (May-October 1520), the Comuneros movement was characterized by an alliance between the nobility and the cities. This is explained by the fact that the separatist aspirations of the nobility found support among part of the patriciate and burghers, who spoke out in defense of the medieval liberties of the cities against the absolutist tendencies of royal power. However, the union of the nobility and the cities turned out to be fragile, since their interests were largely opposed. There was a stubborn struggle between cities and grandees for the lands that were at the disposal of urban communities. Despite this, at the first stage there was a unification of all anti-absolutist forces.
At first, the movement was led by the city of Toledo, and its main leaders, the nobles Juan de Padilla and Pedro Lazo de la Vega, came from here. An attempt was made to unite all the rebel cities. Their representatives gathered in Avila, along with the townspeople there were many nobles, as well as representatives of the clergy and people of liberal professions. However, the most active role was played by artisans and people from the urban lower classes. Thus, the representative from Seville was a weaver, from Salamanca a furrier, and from Medina del Campo a clothier. In the summer of 1520, the armed forces of the rebels, led by Juan de Padilla, united within the framework of the Holy Junta. The cities refused to obey the royal viceroy and prohibited his armed forces from entering their territory.
As events developed, the program of the Comuneros movement became more specific, acquiring an anti-noble orientation, but it was not openly directed against royal power as such. The cities demanded the return of the crown lands seized by the grandees to the treasury and their payment of church tithes. They hoped that these measures would improve the financial position of the state and lead to a weakening of the tax burden, which fell heavily on the tax-paying class. However, many of the demands reflected the separatist orientation of the movement, the desire to restore medieval urban privileges (limiting the power of the royal administration in cities, restoring urban armed groups, etc.).
In the spring and summer of 1520, almost the entire country came under the control of the Junta. The Cardinal Viceroy, in constant fear, wrote to Charles V that “there is not a single village in Castile that would not join the rebels.” Charles V ordered the demands of some cities to be met in order to split the movement.
In the fall of 1520, 15 cities abandoned the uprising; their representatives, meeting in Seville, adopted a document on renunciation of the struggle, which clearly showed the patriciate’s fear of the movement of the urban lower classes. In the autumn of the same year, the cardinal-vicar began open military action against the rebels.
At the second stage (1521-1522), the program put forward by the rebels continued to be refined and refined. In the new document “99 Articles” (1521), demands appeared for the independence of the deputies of the Cortes from royal power, for their right to meet every three years, regardless of the will of the monarch, and for the prohibition of the sale of government positions. One can identify a number of demands openly directed against the nobility: to close the access of nobles to municipal positions, to impose taxes on the nobility, to eliminate their “harmful” privileges.
As the movement deepened, its orientation against the nobility began to clearly manifest itself. The rebel cities were joined by wide sections of the Castilian peasantry, who suffered from the tyranny of the grandees on the captured domain lands. Peasants destroyed estates and destroyed castles and palaces of the nobility. In April 1521, the Junta declared its support for the peasant movement directed against the grandees as enemies of the kingdom.
These events contributed to further divisions in the camp of the rebels; the nobles and nobles openly went over to the camp of the enemies of the movement. Only a small group of nobles remained in the Junta; the middle strata of the townspeople began to play the main role in it. Taking advantage of the hostility between the nobility and the cities, the Cardinal Viceroy's troops went on the offensive and defeated the troops of Juan de Padilla at the Battle of Villalar (1522). The leaders of the movement were captured and beheaded. For some time, Toledo held out, where Juan de Padilla’s wife, Maria Pacheco, operated. Despite the famine and epidemic, the rebels held firm. Maria Pacheco hoped for help from the French king Francis I, but in the end she was forced to seek salvation in flight.
In October 1522, Charles V returned to the country at the head of a detachment of mercenaries, but by this time the movement had already been suppressed.
Simultaneously with the uprising of the Castilian communeros, fighting broke out in Valencia and on the island of Mallorca. The reasons for the uprising were basically the same as in Castile, but the situation here was aggravated by the fact that city magistrates in many cities were even more dependent on the grandees, who turned them into an instrument of their reactionary policies.
However, as the uprising of the cities developed and deepened, the burghers betrayed him. Fearing that his interests would also be affected, in Valencia the leaders of the burghers persuaded some of the rebels to capitulate to the viceroy's troops, who approached the walls of the city. The resistance of supporters of continuing the struggle was broken, and their leaders were executed.
The Comuneros movement was a very complex social phenomenon. In the first quarter of the 16th century. The burghers in Spain have not yet reached the stage of development when they could already exchange urban liberties to satisfy their interests as the emerging bourgeois class. An important role in the movement was played by the urban lower classes, politically weak and poorly organized. In the uprisings in Castile, Valencia and Majorca, the Spanish burghers had neither a program capable of uniting, at least temporarily, the masses, nor the desire to wage a decisive struggle against feudalism as a whole.
The Comuneros movement demonstrated the desire of the burghers to maintain and even increase their influence in the political life of the country in the traditional way - by conserving urban liberties. At the second stage of the Comuneros uprising, the anti-feudal movement of the urban plebs and peasantry reached significant proportions, but under those conditions it could not be successful.
The defeat of the Comuneros uprising had negative consequences for the further development of Spain. The peasantry of Castile was given full power to the grandees, who had come to terms with royal absolutism; the townspeople's movement was crushed; a heavy blow was dealt to the nascent bourgeoisie; the suppression of the movement of the urban lower classes left cities defenseless against increasing tax oppression. From now on, not only the village, but also the city was plundered by the Spanish nobility.
Economic development of Spain in the 16th century.
The most populous part of Spain was Castile, where 3/4 of the population of the Iberian Peninsula lived. As in the rest of the country, land in Castile was in the hands of the crown, the nobility, the Catholic Church and spiritual knightly orders. The bulk of Castilian peasants enjoyed personal freedom. They held the lands of spiritual and secular feudal lords in hereditary use, paying a monetary qualification for them. In the most favorable conditions were the peasant colonists of New Castile and Granada, who settled on lands conquered from the Moors. Not only did they enjoy personal freedom, but their communities enjoyed privileges and liberties similar to those enjoyed by the Castilian cities. This situation changed after the defeat of the Comuneros revolt.
The socio-economic system of Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia differed sharply from the system of Castile. Here and in the 16th century. The most brutal forms of feudal dependence were preserved. The feudal lords inherited the property of the peasants, interfered in their personal lives, could subject them to corporal punishment and even put them to death.
The most oppressed and powerless part of the peasants and urban population of Spain were the Moriscos - descendants of the Moors who were forcibly converted to Christianity. They lived mainly in Granada, Andalusia and Valencia, as well as in rural areas of Aragon and Castile, were subject to heavy taxes in favor of the church and state, and were constantly under the supervision of the Inquisition. Despite persecution, the hardworking Moriscos have long grown such valuable crops as olives, rice, grapes, sugar cane, and mulberry trees. In the south they created a perfect irrigation system, thanks to which they received high yields of grain, vegetables and fruits.
For many centuries, transhumance sheep breeding was an important branch of agriculture in Castile. The bulk of the sheep flocks belonged to a privileged noble corporation - Mesta, which enjoyed special patronage from the royal power.
Twice a year, in spring and autumn, thousands of sheep were driven from; north to south of the peninsula and back along wide roads laid through cultivated fields, vineyards, olive groves. Tens of thousands of sheep, moving across the country, caused enormous damage to agriculture. Under pain of severe punishment, the rural population was forbidden to fence their fields from passing herds. Back in the 15th century. Mesta received the right to graze their flocks on the pastures of rural and urban communities, to take a perpetual lease of any piece of land if the sheep grazed on it for one season. The place enjoyed enormous influence in the country, since the largest herds belonged to the representatives of the highest Castilian nobility united in it. They achieved at the beginning of the 16th century. confirmation of all previous privileges of this corporation.
In the first quarter of the 16th century. Due to the rapid development of production in cities and the growing demand of the colonies for food in Spain, there was a slight increase in agriculture. Sources indicate an expansion of cultivated areas around large cities (Burgos, Medina del Campo, Valladolid, Seville). The trend towards intensification was most pronounced in the wine industry. However, increasing production to meet the demands of an increased market required significant funds, which was only possible for the wealthy, extremely small stratum of peasants in Spain. Most of them were forced to resort to loans from moneylenders and wealthy townspeople on the security of their holdings with the obligation to pay annual interest for several generations (super-qualification). This circumstance, together with the increase in state taxes, led to an increase in the debt of the bulk of the peasants, to their loss of land and their transformation into farm laborers or vagabonds.
The entire economic and political structure of Spain, where the leading role belonged to the nobility and the Catholic Church, hindered the progressive development of the economy.
The tax system in Spain also hampered the development of early capitalist elements in the country's economy. The most hated tax was alcabala - a 10% tax on every trade transaction; In addition, there were a huge number of permanent and emergency taxes, the size of which throughout the 16th century. increased all the time, absorbing up to 50% of the income of the peasant and artisan. The difficult situation of the peasants was aggravated by all kinds of government duties (transportation of goods for the royal court and troops, soldiers' quarters, food supplies for the army, etc.).
Spain was the first country to experience the impact of the price revolution. From 1503 to 1650, over 180 tons of gold and 16.8 thousand tons of silver were imported here, mined by the labor of the enslaved population of the colonies and looted by the conquistadors. The influx of cheap precious metal was the main reason for the increase in prices in European countries. In Spain, prices have increased 3.5 - 4 times.
Already in the first quarter of the 16th century. There was an increase in prices for basic necessities, and above all for bread. It would seem that this circumstance should have contributed to the growth of agricultural marketability. However, the system of taxes (maximum prices for grain) established in 1503 artificially kept prices for bread low, while other products quickly became more expensive. This led to a reduction in grain crops and a sharp drop in grain production in the mid-16th century. Starting from the 30s, most regions of the country imported bread from France and Sicily; imported bread was not subject to the tax law and was sold 2-2.5 times more expensive than grain produced by Spanish peasants.
The conquest of the colonies and the unprecedented expansion of colonial trade contributed to the rise of handicraft production in the cities of Spain and the emergence of individual elements of manufacturing production, especially in cloth making. In its main centers - Segovia, Toledo, Seville, Cuenca - manufactories arose. A large number of spinners and weavers in the cities and surrounding areas worked for the buyers. At the beginning of the 17th century. the large workshops of Segovia numbered several hundred hired workers.
Since Arab times, Spanish silk fabrics, famous for their high quality, brightness and color fastness, have enjoyed great popularity in Europe. The main centers of silk production were Seville, Toledo, Cordoba, Granada and Valencia. Expensive silk fabrics were little consumed on the domestic market and were mainly exported, as were brocade, velvet, gloves, and hats made in the southern cities. At the same time, coarse, cheap woolen and linen fabrics were imported into Spain from the Netherlands and England.
Metallurgy was an important branch of the economy with the beginnings of manufacturing. The northern regions of Spain, along with Sweden and Central Germany, occupied an important place in metal production in Europe. On the basis of the ore mined here, the production of bladed weapons and firearms, various metal products developed in the 16th century. the production of muskets and artillery pieces arose. In addition to metallurgy, shipbuilding and fishing were developed. The main port in trade with Northern Europe was Bilbao, which in terms of equipment and cargo turnover surpassed Seville until the middle of the 16th century. The northern regions actively participated in the export trade of wool, coming from all regions of the country to the city of Burgos. Around the Burgos-Bilbao axis there was a lively economic activity related to Spain's trade with Europe, and primarily with the Netherlands. Another old economic center of Spain was the Toledo region. The city itself was famous for the production of cloth, silk fabrics, the production of weapons and leather processing.
From the second quarter of the 16th century, in connection with the expansion of colonial trade, the rise of Seville began. In the city and its surroundings, manufactories for the production of cloth and ceramic products arose, the production of silk fabrics and the processing of raw silk developed, shipbuilding and industries related to equipping the fleet grew rapidly. The fertile valleys in the vicinity of Seville and other southern cities turned into continuous vineyards and olive groves.
In 1503, Seville's monopoly on trade with the colonies was established and the Seville Chamber of Commerce was created, which exercised control over the export of goods from Spain to the colonies and the import of goods from the New World, mainly consisting of gold and silver bars. All goods intended for export and import were carefully registered by officials and were subject to duties in favor of the treasury. Wine and olive oil became the main Spanish exports to America. Investing money in colonial trade gave very great benefits (the profit here was much higher than in other industries). In addition to the Seville merchants, merchants from Burgos, Segovia, and Toledo took part in colonial trade. A significant part of merchants and artisans moved to Seville from other regions of Spain.
The population of Seville doubled between 1530 and 1594. The number of banks and merchant companies increased. At the same time, this meant the actual deprivation of other areas of the opportunity to trade with the colonies, since due to the lack of water and convenient land routes, transporting goods to Seville from the north was very expensive. The monopoly of Seville provided the treasury with huge revenues, but it had a detrimental effect on the economic situation of other parts of the country. The role of the northern regions, which had convenient access to the Atlantic Ocean, was reduced only to the protection of flotillas heading to the colonies, which led their economy to decline at the end of the 16th century.
The most important center of internal trade and credit and financial operations in the 16th century. the city of Medina del Campo remained. Annual autumn and spring fairs attracted merchants here not only from all over Spain, but also from all European countries. Here settlements were made for the largest foreign trade transactions, agreements were concluded on loans and supplies of goods to European countries and colonies.
Thus, in the first half of the 16th century. A favorable environment has been created in Spain for the development of industry and trade. The colonies required a large amount of goods, and the huge funds that came to Spain from the 20s of the 16th century. as a result of the robbery of America, created opportunities for capital accumulation. This gave impetus to the economic development of the country. However, both in agriculture and in industry and trade, the sprouts of new, progressive economic relations met strong resistance from the conservative layers of feudal society. The development of the main branch of Spanish industry - the production of woolen fabrics - was hampered by the export of a significant part of the wool to the Netherlands. In vain, Spanish cities demanded to limit the export of raw materials in order to lower their price on the domestic market. Wool production was in the hands of the Spanish nobility, who did not want to lose their income and, instead of reducing wool exports, sought the publication of laws allowing the import of foreign cloth.
Despite the economic growth of the first half of the 16th century, Spain remained generally an agrarian country with an underdeveloped internal market; certain areas were locally closed economically.
Political system.
During the reign of Charles V and Philip II (1555-1598), central power was strengthened, but the Spanish state was politically a motley conglomerate of disunited territories. The administration of individual parts of the country reproduced the order that had developed in the Aragon-Castilian kingdom itself, which formed the political core of the Spanish monarchy. At the head of the state was the king, who headed the Castilian Council; There was also an Aragonese Council that governed Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia. Other councils were in charge of territories outside the peninsula: the Council of Flanders, the Italian Council, the Council of the Indies; These areas were governed by viceroys, appointed, as a rule, from representatives of the highest Castilian nobility.
Strengthening absolutist tendencies in the 16th - first half of the 17th centuries. led to the decline of the Cortes. Already by the first quarter of the 16th century. their role was reduced exclusively to voting new taxes and loans to the king. Only representatives of cities were increasingly invited to their meetings. Since 1538, the nobility and clergy were not officially represented in the Cortes. At the same time, in connection with the massive relocation of nobles to the cities, a fierce struggle broke out between the burghers and the nobility for participation in city government. As a result, the nobles secured the right to occupy half of all positions in municipal bodies.
Increasingly, nobles acted as representatives of cities in the Cortes, which indicated the strengthening of their political influence. True, the nobles often sold their municipal positions to wealthy townspeople, many of whom were even residents of these places, or rented them out.
The further decline of the Cortes was accompanied in the middle of the 17th century by the deprivation of their right to vote taxes, which was transferred to city councils, after which the Cortes stopped convening.
In the XVI - early XVII centuries. large cities, despite significant advances in industrial development, largely retained their medieval appearance. These were urban communes where the patriciate and nobles were in power. Many city residents who had fairly high incomes purchased “hidalgia” for money, which freed them from paying taxes, which fell heavily on the middle and lower strata of the urban population.
Throughout the period, the strong power of the large feudal nobility remained in many areas. Spiritual and secular feudal lords had judicial power not only in rural areas, but also in cities, where entire neighborhoods, and sometimes cities with the entire district, were under their jurisdiction. Many of them received from the king the right to collect state taxes, which further increased their political and administrative power.
The beginning of the decline of Spain. Philip II.
Charles V spent his life on campaigns and almost never visited Spain. Wars with the Turks, who attacked the Spanish state from the south and the possessions of the Austrian Habsburgs from the southeast, wars with France due to dominance in Europe and especially in Italy, wars with his own subjects - the Protestant princes in Germany - occupied his entire reign. The grandiose plan to create a world Catholic empire collapsed, despite Charles’s numerous military and foreign political successes.
In 1555, Charles V abdicated the throne, transferring Spain, the Netherlands, the colonies in America and the Italian possessions to his eldest son Philip II. In addition to the legitimate heir, Charles V had two illegitimate children: Margaret of Parma, the future ruler of the Netherlands, and Don Juan of Austria, a famous political and military figure, the winner of the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto (1571).
The future King Philip II grew up without a father, since Charles V had not been to Spain for almost 20 years. The heir grew up gloomy and withdrawn. Like his father, Philip II took a pragmatic view of marriage, often repeating the words of Charles V: “Royal marriages are not for family happiness, but for the continuation of the dynasty.” The first son of Philip II from his marriage to Maria of Portugal - Don Carlos - turned out to be physically and mentally disabled. Experiencing mortal fear of his father, he prepared to secretly flee to the Netherlands. Rumors of this prompted Philip II to take his son into custody, where he soon died.
Purely political calculations dictated the second marriage of 27-year-old Philip II with the 43-year-old Catholic Queen of England Mary Tudor. Philip II hoped to unite the efforts of the two Catholic powers in the fight against the Reformation. Four years later, Mary Tudor died without leaving an heir. Philip II's bid for the hand of Elizabeth I, the Protestant Queen of England, was rejected.
Philip II was married 4 times, but of his 8 children only two survived. Only in his marriage to Anna of Austria did he have a son, the future heir to the throne, Philip III. not distinguished by either health or ability to govern the state.
Leaving the old residences of the Spanish kings of Toledo and Valla Dolid, Philip II established his capital in the small town of Madrid on the deserted and barren Castilian plateau. Not far from Madrid, a grandiose monastery arose, which was at the same time a palace-burial vault - El Escorial.
Severe measures were taken against the Moriscos, many of whom continued to practice the faith of their fathers in secret. The Inquisition fell upon them, forcing them to abandon their previous customs and language. At the beginning of his reign, Philip II issued a number of laws that intensified their persecution. The Moriscos, driven to despair, rebelled in 1568 under the slogan of preserving the caliphate.
With great difficulty, the government managed to suppress the uprising in 1571. In the cities and villages of the Moriscos, the entire male population was exterminated, women and children were sold into slavery. The surviving Moriscos were expelled to the barren regions of Castile, doomed to hunger and vagrancy. The Castilian authorities mercilessly persecuted the Moriscos, and the Inquisition burned hundreds of “apostates from the true faith.”
The brutal oppression of the peasants and the general deterioration of the economic situation of the country caused repeated peasant uprisings, of which the strongest was the uprising in Aragon in 1585. The policy of shameless robbery of the Netherlands and a sharp increase in religious and political persecution led in the 60s of the 16th century. to the uprising in the Netherlands, which developed into a war of liberation against Spain (see Chapter 9).
The economic decline of Spain in the second half of the 16th – 17th centuries.
Beginning in the mid-16th century, Spain entered a period of prolonged economic decline, which first affected agriculture, then industry and trade. Speaking about the reasons for the decline of agriculture and the ruin of the peasants, sources invariably emphasize three of them: the severity of taxes, the existence of maximum prices for bread and the abuses of the Place. Peasants were driven from their lands, communities were deprived of their pastures and meadows, this led to the decline of livestock farming and a reduction in crops. The country was experiencing an acute shortage of food, which further inflated prices. The main reason for the rise in prices of goods was not the increase in the amount of money in circulation, but the fall in the value of gold and silver due to the decrease in the cost of mining precious metals in the New World.
In the second half of the 16th century. In Spain, the concentration of land ownership in the hands of the largest feudal lords continued to increase. A significant part of the noble estates enjoyed the right of primogeniture; they were inherited by the eldest son and were inalienable, that is, they could not be mortgaged or sold for debts. Church lands and the possessions of spiritual knightly orders were also inalienable. Despite the significant debt of the highest aristocracy in the 16th-17th centuries, the nobility retained its land holdings and even increased them by purchasing domain lands sold by the crown. The new owners eliminated the rights of communities and cities to pastures, seized communal lands and plots of those peasants whose rights were not properly formalized. In the 16th century the right of primogeniture extended to the possessions of the burghers. The existence of majorates removed a significant part of the land from circulation, which hampered the development of capitalist tendencies in agriculture.
The country experienced an intensive process of expropriation of the peasantry, which led to a reduction in the rural population in the northern and central regions of the country. The petitions of the Cortes constantly speak of villages where there were only a few inhabitants left, forced to bear the exorbitant burden of taxes. So, in one of the villages near the city of Toro, there were only three residents left who sold the bells and sacred vessels from the local church to pay taxes. Many peasants did not have tools or draft animals and sold standing grain long before harvest. In Castile there was a significant stratification of the peasantry. In many villages in the Toledo region, 60 to 85% of the peasants were day laborers who systematically sold their labor.
At the same time, against the backdrop of the decline of small peasant farming, large commercial farms arose, based on the use of short-term rentals and hired labor and largely export-oriented. These trends are especially characteristic of the south of the country. Almost all of Extremadura ended up in the hands of the two largest magnates; the best lands of Andalusia were divided between several lords. Vast expanses of land here were occupied by vineyards and olive groves. In the wine industry, hired labor was used especially intensively, and there was a transition from hereditary to short-term rental. While agricultural decline and grain plantings declined throughout the country, industries associated with colonial trade flourished. The country imported a significant portion of its grain consumption from abroad.
At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. economic decline affected all sectors of the country's economy. Precious metals brought from the New World largely fell into the hands of the nobles, and therefore the latter lost interest in economic activity. This determined the decline of not only agriculture, but also industry, and primarily textile production.
Manufactures began to emerge in Spain in the first half of the 16th century, but they were few in number and did not receive further development. The largest center of manufacturing production was Segovia. Already in 1573, the Cortes complained about the decline in the production of woolen fabrics in Toledo, Segovia, Que and other cities. Such complaints are understandable, since, despite the growing demand of the American market, due to rising prices for raw materials and agricultural products, and rising wages, fabrics made abroad from Spanish wool were cheaper than Spanish ones.
The production of the main type of raw material - wool - was in the hands of the nobility, who did not want to lose their income received from high prices for wool in Spain itself and abroad. Despite repeated requests from cities to reduce wool exports, it constantly increased and almost quadrupled from 1512 to 1610. Under these conditions, expensive Spanish fabrics could not withstand competition with cheaper foreign ones, and Spanish industry lost markets in Europe, in the colonies, and even in its own country. Trading companies of Seville since the middle of the 16th century. began to increasingly resort to replacing expensive Spanish products with cheaper goods exported from the Netherlands, France, and England. The fact that until the end of the 60s, i.e., also had a negative impact on Spanish manufacturing. During the period of its formation, when it especially needed protection from foreign competition, the commercial and industrial Netherlands were under the rule of Spain. These areas were considered by the Spanish monarchy as part of the Spanish state. The duties on wool imported there, although increased in 1558, were two times lower than usual, and the import of finished Flemish cloth was carried out on more favorable terms than from other countries. All this had disastrous consequences for Spanish manufacturing: the merchants withdrew their capital from manufacturing production, since participation in the colonial trade in foreign goods promised them great profits.
By the end of the century, against the background of the progressive decline of agriculture and industry, only colonial trade continued to flourish, the monopoly of which continued to belong to Seville. Its highest rise dates back to the last decade of the 16th century. and by the first decade of the 17th century. However, since Spanish merchants traded mainly in foreign-made goods, gold and silver coming from America almost did not stay in Spain, but flowed to other countries in payment for goods that were supplied to Spain itself and its colonies, and were also spent on the maintenance of troops. Spanish iron, smelted on charcoal, was replaced on the European market by cheaper Swedish, English and Lorraine iron, in the production of which coal began to be used. Spain now began to import metal products and weapons from Italy and German cities.
The state spent enormous sums on military enterprises and the army, taxes increased, and public debt grew uncontrollably. Even under Charles V, the Spanish monarchy made large loans from foreign bankers the Fuggers, to whom, in order to repay the debt, they were given income from the lands of the spiritual knightly orders of Sant Iago, Calatrava and Alcantara, whose master was the King of Spain. Then the Fuggers acquired the richest mercury-zinc mines of Almaden. At the end of the 16th century. More than half of the treasury's expenditures came from paying interest on the national debt. Philip II declared state bankruptcy several times, ruining his creditors; the government lost credit and, in order to borrow new amounts, had to provide Genoese, German and other bankers with the right to collect taxes from certain regions and other sources of income.
Outstanding Spanish economist of the second half of the 16th century. Thomas Mercado wrote about the dominance of foreigners in the country’s economy: “No, they could not, the Spaniards could not calmly look at the foreigners prospering on their land; the best possessions, the richest majorates, all the income of the king and nobles are in their hands.” Spain was one of the first countries to embark on the path of primitive accumulation, but the specific conditions of socio-economic development prevented it from following the path of capitalist development. The huge funds received from the robbery of the colony were not used to create new forms of economy, but were spent on unproductive consumption of the feudal class. In the middle of the 16th century. 70% of all treasury revenues came from the metropolis and 30% was given to the colonies. By 1584, the ratio had changed: income from the metropolis amounted to 30%, and from the colonies - 70%. American gold, flowing through Spain, became the most important lever of primitive accumulation in other countries (primarily in the Netherlands) and significantly accelerated the development of early capitalist forms of economy there. In Spain itself, which began in the 16th century. the process of capitalist development came to a halt. The decomposition of feudal forms in industry and agriculture was not accompanied by the formation of an early capitalist structure.
Spanish absolutism.
The absolute monarchy in Spain had a very unique character. Centralized and subordinate to the individual will of the monarch or his all-powerful temporary workers, the state apparatus had a significant degree of independence. In its policy, Spanish absolutism was guided by the interests of the nobility and the church. This became especially clear during the period of the economic decline of Spain that followed in the second half of the 16th century. As the trade and industrial activity of cities declined, internal exchange decreased, communication between residents of different provinces weakened, and trade routes became empty. The weakening of economic ties exposed the old feudal characteristics of each region, and the medieval separatism of the cities and provinces of the country was resurrected.
Under the current conditions, separate ethnic groups continued to exist in Spain: Catalans, Galicians and Basques spoke their own languages, different from the Castilian dialect, which formed the basis of literary Spanish. Unlike other European states, the absolute monarchy in Spain did not play a progressive role and was unable to provide true centralization.
Foreign policy of Philip II.
After the death of Mary Tudor and the accession of the Protestant Queen Elizabeth I to the English throne, Charles V's hopes of creating a worldwide Catholic power by uniting the forces of the Spanish monarchy and Catholic England were dashed. Relations between Spain and England worsened, which, not without reason, saw Spain as its main rival at sea and in the struggle for the seizure of colonies in the Western Hemisphere. Taking advantage of the war of independence in the Netherlands, England tried in every possible way to ensure its interests here, not stopping at armed intervention.
English corsairs robbed Spanish ships returning from America with a cargo of precious metals and blocked trade in the northern cities of Spain.
Spanish absolutism set itself the task of crushing this “heretical and robber nest”, and if successful, taking possession of England. The task began to seem quite feasible after Portugal was annexed to Spain. After the death of the last representative of the reigning dynasty in 1581, the Portuguese Cortes proclaimed Philip II their king. Together with Portugal, the Portuguese colonies in the East and West Indies, including Brazil, also came under Spanish rule. Reinforced by new resources, Philip II began to support Catholic circles in England that were intriguing against Queen Elizabeth and promoting a Catholic, the Scottish Queen Mary Stuart, to the throne in her place. But in 1587, a conspiracy against Elizabeth was discovered, and Mary was beheaded. England sent a squadron to Cadiz under the command of Admiral Drake, who, breaking into the port, destroyed the Spanish ships (1587). This event served as the beginning of an open struggle between Spain and England. Spain began to equip a huge squadron to fight England. “The Invincible Armada” was the name of the Spanish squadron that sailed from La Coruña to the shores of England at the end of June 1588, but the enterprise ended in disaster. The death of the "Invincible Armada" was a terrible blow to the prestige of Spain and undermined its naval power.
Failure did not prevent Spain from making another political mistake - intervening in the civil war that was raging in France (see Chapter 12). This intervention did not lead to an increase in Spanish influence in France, nor to any other positive results for Spain.
Spain's fight against the Turks brought more victorious laurels. The Turkish danger looming over Europe became especially noticeable when the Turks captured most of Hungary and the Turkish fleet began to threaten Italy. In 1564 the Turks blockaded Malta. Only with great difficulty was it possible to hold the island.
In 1571, the combined Spanish-Venetian fleet under the command of Don Juan of Austria inflicted a crushing defeat on the Turkish fleet in the Gulf of Lepanto. This victory stopped further maritime expansion of the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean. Don Juan pursued far-reaching goals: to seize Turkish possessions in the eastern Mediterranean, recapture Constantinople and restore the Byzantine Empire. The ambitious plans of his half-brother alarmed Philip I. He refused him military and financial support. Tunisia, captured by Don Juan, again passed to the Turks.
By the end of his reign, Philip II had to admit that almost all his extensive plans had failed, and the naval power of Spain had been broken. The northern provinces of the Netherlands broke away from Spain. The state treasury was empty, the country was experiencing a severe economic decline. The entire life of Philip II was devoted to the implementation of his father's main idea - the creation of a worldwide Catholic power. But all the intricacies of his foreign policy collapsed, his armies suffered defeats; the flotillas sank. At the end of his life, he had to admit that “the heretical spirit promotes trade and prosperity,” but despite this he persistently repeated: “I prefer not to have subjects at all than to have heretics as such.”
Spain at the beginning of the 17th century.
With the accession of Philip III (1598-1621) to the throne, the long agony of the once powerful Spanish state began. The niche and destitute country was ruled by the king's favorite Duke of Lerma. The Madrid court amazed contemporaries with its pomp and extravagance, while the masses were exhausted under the unbearable burden of taxes and endless extortions. Even the obedient Cortes, to whom the king turned for new subsidies, were forced to declare that there was nothing to pay, since the country was completely ruined, trade was killed by the alcabala, industry was in decline, and the cities were empty. Treasury revenues decreased, fewer and fewer galleons loaded with precious metals arrived from the American colonies, but this cargo often became the prey of English and Dutch pirates or fell into the hands of bankers and moneylenders who lent money to the Spanish treasury at huge interest rates.
The reactionary nature of Spanish absolutism was expressed in many of its actions. One striking example is the expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain. In 1609, an edict was issued according to which the Moriscos were subject to eviction from the country. Within a few days, under pain of death, they had to board ships and go to Barbary (North Africa), carrying only what they could carry in their hands. On the way to the ports, many refugees were robbed and killed. In the mountainous regions, the Moriscos resisted, which accelerated the tragic outcome. By 1610, over 100 thousand people were evicted from Valencia. The Moriscos of Aragon, Murcia, Andalusia and other provinces suffered the same fate. In total, about 300 thousand people were expelled. Many became victims of the Inquisition or died during the expulsion.
Foreign policy of Spain in the first half of the 17th century.
Despite the poverty and desolation of the country, the Spanish monarchy retained its inherited claims to play a leading role in European affairs. The collapse of all the aggressive plans of Philip II did not sober up his successor. When Philip III came to the throne, the war in Europe was still ongoing. England acted in alliance with Holland against the Habsburgs. Holland defended its independence from the Spanish monarchy with arms in hand.
The Spanish governors in the Southern Netherlands did not have sufficient military forces and tried to make peace with England and Holland, but this attempt was thwarted due to the excessive claims of the Spanish side.
Queen Elizabeth I of England died in 1603. Her successor, James I Stuart, radically changed England's foreign policy. Spanish diplomacy managed to draw the English king into the orbit of Spanish foreign policy. But that didn't help either. In the war with Holland, Spain could not achieve decisive success. The commander-in-chief of the Spanish army, the energetic and talented commander Spinola, could not achieve anything in conditions of complete depletion of the treasury. The most tragic thing for the Spanish government was that the Dutch intercepted Spanish ships from the Azores and waged a war with Spanish funds. Spain was forced to conclude a truce with Holland for a period of 12 years.
After the accession of Philip IV (1621-1665), Spain was still ruled by favorites; Lerma was replaced by the energetic Count Olivares. However, he could not change anything. The reign of Philip IV marked the final decline in Spain's international prestige. In 1635, when France directly intervened in the Thirty Years' War (see Chapter 17), Spanish troops suffered frequent defeats. In 1638, Richelieu decided to strike Spain on its own territory: French troops captured Roussillon and subsequently invaded the northern provinces of Spain. But there they encountered resistance from the people.
By the 40s of the 17th century. the country was completely exhausted. The constant strain on finances, the extortion of taxes and duties, the rule of an arrogant, idle nobility and fanatical clergy, the decline of agriculture, industry and trade - all this gave rise to widespread discontent among the masses. Soon this dissatisfaction burst out.
Deposition of Portugal.
After Portugal joined the Spanish monarchy, its ancient liberties were left intact: Philip II sought not to irritate his new subjects. The situation changed for the worse under his successors, when Portugal became the object of the same merciless exploitation as the other possessions of the Spanish monarchy. Spain was unable to hold on to the Portuguese colonies, which passed into Dutch hands. Cadiz attracted Lisbon's trade, and the Castilian tax system was introduced in Portugal. The silent discontent growing in wide circles of Portuguese society became clear in 1637.
The first uprising was quickly suppressed. However, the idea of setting aside Portugal and declaring its independence did not disappear. One of the descendants of the previous dynasty was nominated as a candidate for the throne. The conspirators included the Archbishop of Lisbon, representatives of the Portuguese nobility, and wealthy citizens. On December 1, 1640, having captured the palace in Lisbon, the conspirators arrested the Spanish viceroy and proclaimed Joan IV of Braganza king.
Popular movements in Spain in the first half of the 17th century.
The reactionary policies of Spanish absolutism led to a number of powerful popular movements in Spain and its possessions. In these movements, the struggle against seigneurial oppression in the countryside and the actions of the urban lower classes were often aimed at preserving medieval liberties and privileges. In addition, separatist revolts of the feudal nobility and the ruling elite of the cities often enjoyed military support from abroad and were intertwined with the struggle of the peasantry and urban plebs. This created a complex balance of social forces.
In the 30-40s of the 17th century. Along with the revolts of the nobility in Aragon and Andalusia, powerful popular uprisings broke out in Catalonia and Vizcaya. The uprising in Catalonia began in the summer of 1640. The immediate reason for it was the violence and looting of Spanish troops intended to wage war with France and stationed in Catalonia in violation of its liberties and privileges.
The rebels were divided into two camps from the very beginning. The first were the feudal-separatist layers of the Catalan nobility and the patrician-burgher elite of the cities. Their program was the creation of an autonomous state under the protectorate of France and the preservation of traditional liberties and privileges. In order to achieve their goals, these layers entered into an alliance with France and even went so far as to recognize Louis XIII as Count of Barcelona. The other camp included the peasantry and urban plebs of Catalonia, who made anti-feudal demands. The revolting peasants were not supported by the urban plebs of Barcelona. They killed the viceroy and many government officials. The uprising was accompanied by pogroms and looting of the houses of the city's rich. Then the nobility and the city elite called in French troops. The looting and violence of the French troops caused even greater anger among the Catalan peasants. Clashes between peasant detachments and the French began, whom they considered foreign invaders. Frightened by the growth of the peasant-plebeian movement, the nobles and urban elite of Catalonia in 1653 agreed to reconciliation with Philip V on the condition of preserving their liberties.
Culture of Spain in the 16th-17th centuries.
The unification of the country, economic growth in the first half of the 16th century, the growth of international relations and foreign trade associated with the discovery of new lands, and the developed spirit of entrepreneurship determined the high rise of Spanish culture. The heyday of the Spanish Renaissance dates back to the second half of the 16th - first decades of the 17th century.
The most important centers of education were the leading Spanish universities in Salamanca and Alcala de Henares. At the end of the 15th - first half of the 16th century. At the University of Salamanca, the humanistic direction in teaching and research prevailed. In the second half of the 16th century. Copernicus' heliocentric system was studied in the university classrooms. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. here the first sprouts of humanistic ideas in the field of philosophy and law arose. An important event in the country's public life were the lectures of the outstanding humanist scientist Francisco de Vitoria, dedicated to the situation of the Indians in the newly conquered lands of America. Vitoria rejected the need for forced baptism of Indians and condemned the mass extermination and enslavement of the indigenous population of the New World. Among the university's scientists, the outstanding Spanish humanist, priest Bartolomé de Las Casas, found support. As a participant in the conquest of Mexico and then a missionary, he spoke out in defense of the indigenous population, painting in his book “The True History of the Ruin of the Indies” and in other works a terrible picture of the violence and cruelty inflicted by the conquistadors. Salamanca scholars supported his project to free enslaved Indians and prohibit them from being enslaved in the future. In the debates that took place in Salamanca, in the works of scientists Las Casas, F. de Vitoria, and Domingo Soto, the idea of the equality of the Indians with the Spaniards and the unjust nature of the wars waged by the Spanish conquerors in the New World was first put forward.
The discovery of America, the “price revolution,” and the unprecedented growth of trade required the development of a number of economic problems. In search of an answer to the question of the reason for the rise in prices, the economists of Salamanca produced a number of economic studies that were important for that time on the theory of money, trade and exchange, and developed the basic principles of the policy of mercantilism. However, in Spanish conditions these ideas could not be put into practice.
The great geographical discoveries and the conquest of lands in the New World had a huge impact on the social thought of Spain, on its literature and art. This influence was reflected in the spread of humanistic utopia in the literature of the 16th century. The idea of a “golden age,” which was previously sought in antiquity, in the ideal knightly past, was now often associated with the New World; Various projects were born to create an ideal Indian-Spanish state in the newly discovered lands. Las Casas, F. de Herrera, and A. Quiroga associated the dream of reconstructing society with faith in the virtuous nature of man, in his ability to overcome obstacles to achieving the common good.
By the first half of the 16th century. refers to the activities of the outstanding Spanish humanist, theologian, anatomist and physician Miguel Servetus (1511-1553). He received a brilliant humanistic education. Servetus opposed one of the main Christian dogmas about the trinity of God in one person, and was associated with the Anabaptists. For this he was persecuted by the Inquisition, and the scientist was forced to flee to France. His book was burned. In 1553, he anonymously published a treatise, “The Restoration of Christianity,” in which he criticized not only Catholicism, but also the tenets of Calvinism. That same year, Servetus was arrested while passing through Calvinist Geneva, accused of heresy and burned at the stake.
Since the spread of Renaissance ideas in philosophical form and the development of advanced science were extremely difficult by the Catholic reaction, humanistic ideas received their most vivid embodiment in art and literature. The uniqueness of the Spanish Renaissance was that the culture of this period, more than in other countries, was associated with folk art. Outstanding masters of the Spanish Renaissance drew their inspiration from it.
For the first half of the 16th century. The widespread distribution of adventurous chivalric and pastoral novels was typical. Interest in chivalric novels was explained by the nostalgia of the impoverished hidalgo nobles for the past. At the same time, this was not a memory of the heroic exploits of the Reconquista, when knights fought for their homeland, against the enemies of their people and their king. Hero of chivalric novels of the 16th century. - an adventurer who performs feats in the name of personal glory, the cult of his lady. He fights not with the enemies of his homeland, but with his rivals, wizards, monsters. This stylized literature carried the reader into unknown lands, into the world of love adventures and daring adventures in the taste of the court aristocracy.
A favorite genre of urban literature was the picaresque novel, the hero of which was a tramp, very unscrupulous in his means, achieving material well-being through trickery or arranged marriage. Particularly famous was the anonymous novel “The Life of Lazarillo of Tormes” (1554), the hero of which, as a child, was forced to leave his home, going to wander the world in search of food. He becomes a guide to a blind man, then a servant to a priest, to an impoverished hidalgo, so poor that he feeds himself from the alms that Lazarillo collects. At the end of the novel, the hero achieves material well-being through an arranged marriage. This work opened up new traditions in the genre of picaresque novel.
At the end of the 16th - first half of the 17th century. In Spain, works appeared that were included in the treasury of world literature. The palm in this regard belongs to Miguel Cervantes de Saavedra (1547-1616). Coming from an impoverished noble family, Cervantes went through a life full of hardships and adventures. Serving as a secretary to the papal nuncio, as a soldier (he participated in the Battle of Lepanto), as a tax collector, as an army supplier, and, finally, as a five-year prisoner in Algeria introduced Cervantes to all layers of Spanish society, allowed him to deeply study its life and customs, and enriched his life experience.
He began his literary activity by composing plays, among which only the patriotic “Numancia” received wide recognition. In 1605, the first part of his great work, “The Cunning Hidalgo Don Quixote of La Mancha,” appeared, and in 1615, the second part. Conceived as a parody of the chivalric romances popular at the time, Don Quixote became a work that went far beyond this concept. It turned into a real encyclopedia of life at that time. The book shows all layers of Spanish society: nobles, peasants, soldiers, merchants, students, tramps.
Since ancient times, folk theaters have existed in Spain. Traveling troupes staged plays of both religious content and folk comedies and farces. Often performances took place in the open air or in the courtyards of houses. The plays of the greatest Spanish playwright Lope de Vega appeared on the popular stage for the first time.
Lope Feliz de Vega Carpio (1562-1635) was born in Madrid into a modest family of peasant origins. Having gone through a life path full of adventures, in his declining years he accepted the priesthood. Enormous literary talent, good knowledge of folk life and the historical past of his country allowed Lope de Vega to create outstanding works in all genres: poetry, drama, novel, religious mystery. He wrote about two thousand plays, of which four hundred have reached us. Like Cervantes, Lope de Vega depicts in his works, imbued with the spirit of humanism, people of the most varied social status - from kings and nobles to vagabonds and beggars. In the dramaturgy of Lope de Vega, humanistic thought was combined with the traditions of Spanish folk culture. All his life, Lope fought against the classicists from the Madrid Theater Academy, defending the right to the existence of mass popular theater as an independent genre. During the controversy, he wrote a treatise, “The New Art of Creating Comedy in Our Time,” directed against the canons of classicism.
Lope de Vega created tragedies, historical dramas, comedies of manners. His mastery of intrigue has been brought to perfection; he is considered the creator of a special genre - the “cloak and sword” comedy. He wrote over 80 plays based on subjects from Spanish history, among which stand out works dedicated to the heroic struggle of the people during the Reconquista. The people are genuine, the heroes of his works. One of his most famous dramas is “Fuente Ovejuna” (“The Sheep Spring”), which is based on a true historical fact - a peasant uprising against a cruel oppressor and rapist, the commander of the Order of Calatrava.
Followers of Lope de Vega were Tirso de Molina 0571 1648) and Caldera de la Barca (1600-1681). Tirso Molina's merit was to further improve his dramatic skills and give his works a minted form, defending the freedom of the individual and his right to enjoy life, Tirso de Molina nevertheless defended the steadfastness of the principles of the existing system and the Catholic faith. He is responsible for the creation of the first version of “Don Juan” - a theme that later received such deep development in drama and music.
Pedro Calderoy de la Barca - court poet and playwright, author of plays with religious and moralizing content. All that remained from the Renaissance and humanism was its form, but even that took on the stylized, pretentious character inherent in the Baroque style. At the same time, in his best works, Calderon provides a deep psychological development of the characters of his heroes. Democratic sympathies and humanistic motives are drowned out in him by pessimism and a mood of inevitability of cruel fate. Calderon ends the "golden age" of Spanish literature, giving way to a long period of decline. The people's theater with its democratic traditions, realism and healthy humor was almost strangled. Plays with a secular content began to be staged only on the stage of the court theater, which opened in 1575, and in aristocratic salons.
Simultaneously with the flourishing of literature in Spain, there has been a great rise in the visual arts, associated with the names of such outstanding artists as Domenico Theotokopoulo (El Greco) (1547-1614), Diego Silva de Velazquez (1599-1660), Jusepe de Ribeira (1591-1652) , Bartolome Murillo (1617-1682).
Domenico Theotokopoulo (El Greco), a native of the island of Crete, arrived in Spain from Italy, already a famous artist, a student of Tintoretto. But it was in Spain that he created his best works, and his art truly flourished. When his hopes of obtaining a commission for Escorial failed, he went to Toledo and lived there until the end of his days. Toledo's rich spiritual life, where Spanish and Arab cultural traditions intersected, gave him a deeper understanding of Spain. In canvases on religious themes ("The Holy Family", "The Passion of St. Mauritius", "Espolio", "The Ascension of Christ") El Greco's original style and his aesthetic ideals were clearly manifested. The main meaning of these paintings is the opposition of spiritual perfection and nobility to base passions, cruelty and malice. The artist’s theme of sacrificial submission was the product of a deep crisis and discord in Spanish society in the 16th century. In later paintings and portraits ("The Burial of Count Orgaz", "Portrait of an Unknown Man") El Greco turns to the theme of earthly life and death, to the direct transmission of human feelings. El Greco was one of the creators of a new direction in art - mannerism.
Velazquez's works are a classic example of the Spanish Renaissance in painting. Having proven himself as a landscape painter, portrait painter and battle painter, Velazquez went down in the history of world painting as a master with perfect command of composition and color, and the art of psychological portraiture.
Ribeira, whose work took shape and flourished in Naples, Spain, was significantly influenced by Italian painting. His canvases, painted in transparent, light colors, are distinguished by realism and expressiveness. Religious subjects predominated in Ribeira's paintings.
Bartolome Murillo was the last major painter of the first half of the 17th century. His paintings, imbued with lyricism and a poetic mood, are made in gentle colors and amaze with the richness of soft tints of colors. He wrote many genre paintings depicting scenes from the life of ordinary people in his native Seville; Murillo was especially good at portraying children.
The text is printed according to the edition: History of the Middle Ages: In 2 vols. T. 2: Early modern times: I90 Textbook / Ed. SP. Karpova. - M: Publishing house of Moscow State University: INFRA-M, 2000. - 432 p.
At the dawn of modern times, Spain was the strongest power in Europe. As a result of the Great Geographical Discoveries, she created the largest colonial empire in the world. The strengthening of Spain was largely facilitated by the annexation of Portugal in 1580, which ranked second in terms of the size of its colonial possessions. The turbulent events of the Reformation practically did not affect it, and as a result of the Italian Wars, Spain consolidated its predominant position in the international arena. At the same time, its main rival - France - in the second half of the 16th century. for a long time plunged into the abyss of destructive civil wars caused by the religious and political division of the country.
The history of modern Spain begins with the unification of the two largest kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula - Aragon and Castile. Initially, the united Spain was a union of these two kingdoms, sealed by the marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. In 1479, the royal couple took over the administration of both states, which continued to maintain their previous internal structure. The leading role belonged to Castile, on whose territory 3/4 of the population of the united kingdom lived.
The main factor in the unity of Aragon and Castile was foreign policy. In 1492, their combined forces defeated the last Moorish state on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula - Granada - and thus completed the Reconquista. To commemorate this event, the Pope granted Ferdinand and Isabella the honorary titles of "Catholic Kings". They fully justified the titles they received, striving to strengthen the religious unity of the country and eradicating heresies.
Political structure of Spain
The main feature of Spain's political structure was the lack of strong centralization. Great differences remained between the two kingdoms, and within them between the provinces. Each kingdom had its own bodies of class representation - the Cortes, but as royal power strengthened, their role weakened. The Cortes met less and less frequently, and their functions were limited only to approving taxes and laws established by the king. The life of the various provinces of the state was regulated by local traditions (fueros), which they valued very much.
An important indicator of the strengthening of royal power was its subordination to the Catholic Church in Spain. Starting with Ferdinand of Aragon, the kings headed influential spiritual and knightly orders that played a large role in Spanish society. The “Catholic kings” achieved the right to independently appoint bishops, while foreigners were not allowed to occupy the highest church positions in Spain. The appointment of the Grand Inquisitor, who headed a special ecclesiastical court, was also a royal prerogative. The Inquisition itself acquired not only religious, but also political functions, helping to strengthen the Spanish state. The strengthening of the religious unity of Spain was facilitated by the forced baptism or expulsion outside the borders, first of the Jews, and then of the Moors, the Moriscos, who converted to Christianity.
Features of socio-economic development
Spain entered modern times as a predominantly agricultural country with a very unique social structure. Nowhere in the world was there such a large nobility; in Spain it made up almost 10% of the population. The top layer of the nobility was represented by grandees, the middle layer by caballeros, and at the bottom level of this hierarchy stood ordinary nobles - hidalgos.
The Hidalgos for the most part represented the service class, deprived of property and incapable of any productive activity. During the Reconquista, they only learned to fight, which later ensured the success of the Spanish conquests in America and military victories in Europe.
Participation in the Reconquista was accompanied by the granting of numerous liberties to various segments of the population. This was especially true for Castile. The bulk of the peasants here by the end of the 15th century. enjoyed personal freedom, and the Castilian cities had various privileges. However, at the same time, the peasantry suffered from land shortage, and city dwellers did not have the same opportunities for entrepreneurial activity as in other European countries.
The main industries of the Spanish economy were sheep farming and wool exports. The monopoly in this area has long belonged to an association of sheep farmers called “Mesta”. This noble union had exclusive rights that allowed them to drive numerous flocks of sheep through peasant lands, causing them enormous damage.
Sheep farming in the country flourished to the detriment of grain production, which often led to a shortage of bread. At the same time, owners of sheep farms, unable to organize their own production, preferred to sell raw wool and buy finished cloth abroad. The export of cheap raw materials and the import of expensive products made from them contributed to the development of the economy not of Spain, but of its trading competitors - England and the Netherlands.
The economic life of Spanish society was greatly affected by the consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries and the creation of the colonial empire. The massive influx of gold and silver from America (“American treasures”) put the country’s economy in new conditions. Spain became the first victim of the “price revolution” taking place in the European economy at that time. The untold wealth obtained without much difficulty in the colonies devalued money, which led to an increase in the price of goods. Over the course of a century, prices in Spain rose on average fourfold, far more than in any other European country. This led to the enrichment of some segments of the population at the expense of others. The wealth exported from the colonies deprived Spanish entrepreneurs and the state of an incentive to develop production. Ultimately, all this predetermined the general lag of Spain behind other European states, which were able to use the opportunities that colonial trade opened up to greater benefit for themselves.
Power of Philip II
The first period of the existence of a united Spain is closely connected with its participation in the Italian Wars, during which the country experienced its greatest prosperity.
The Spanish throne was occupied almost all this time by Carlos I (1516-1556), better known as Charles V of Habsburg, Holy Roman Emperor (1519-1556). After the collapse of the power of Charles V, his son Philip II became king of Spain.
In addition to Spain with its colonies, the Netherlands and Charles’s Italian possessions also came under his rule. Philip II was married to the English queen Mary Tudor, in whose alliance he victoriously ended the last of the Italian wars. The Spanish army was recognized as the strongest in Europe.
In 1571, the allied fleet of the Catholic powers under the command of the Spanish prince won a decisive victory over the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto. In 1580, Philip II managed to annex Portugal to his possessions, thus uniting not only the entire Iberian Peninsula, but also the two largest colonial empires of that time. An entire country was named after the king - the Philippines, a Spanish colony on the Pacific Ocean. Madrid, which had been the permanent residence of the king since 1561, quickly became the true capital of a great power. The Madrid court dictated the style of behavior and fashion throughout Europe. However, having reached the heights of foreign policy power, the Spanish monarch was unable to achieve equally impressive successes in the internal development of the country.
The most profitable trade for Spain with America was carried out by monopoly companies under the strict control of royal power, which interfered with its normal development. Agriculture gradually fell into decline under conditions of mass impoverishment of the nobility, accustomed to fighting rather than organizing agricultural labor in their domains. The peasantry and cities were suffocating from high taxes. During the reign of Philip II, the consequences of the “price revolution” manifested themselves in full force. “American treasures” enriched a few representatives of the privileged strata, and also went to pay for foreign goods instead of contributing to the economic development of Spain itself. Significant funds were consumed by the wars. Despite the unprecedented growth of state revenues, which increased 12 times during the reign of Philip II, state expenses constantly exceeded them. Thus, At the moment of Spain's greatest prosperity, the first signs of its decline appeared. The uncompromising policy of Philip II led to the aggravation of all the contradictions characteristic of Spanish society, and then to the weakening of the country's international positions.
The first signal of trouble in the kingdom was the loss of the Netherlands by Spain. The richest country in the domain of Philip II was subjected to ruthless exploitation. Just 10 years after the accession of the new king, a national liberation uprising began there, and soon Spain found itself drawn into a full-scale, long, and most importantly, futile war with the newborn republic. For almost twenty years, Spain also waged a difficult war with England, during which its fleet suffered a severe defeat. The death of the "Invincible Armada", sent in 1588 to conquer England, became a turning point, after which the decline of Spain's naval power began. Intervention in the religious wars in France led at the end of the 16th century. to a clash with this power, which also did not bring glory to Spanish weapons. These were the results of the reign of the most powerful king in the history of Spain.
Spain in decline
The history of the reign of the last Spanish Habsburgs is a chronicle of the gradual decline of a once powerful power, before which other European countries trembled. The reign of Philip III (1598-1621) was marked by the final expulsion from Spain of the Moriscos - the descendants of those Moors who were forced to convert to Christianity. Since the Moriscos were the most active entrepreneurs, their expulsion dealt a heavy blow to the weakening Spanish economy. Under this king, Spain ended the war with England, and in 1609 was forced to agree to a truce with the Netherlands, effectively recognizing their independence. Spain's reconciliation with its main trading competitors caused discontent in society, since in conditions of peace, imports from these countries began to grow to the detriment of the Spanish economy.
Soon there was a return to an active foreign policy, and in alliance with the Austrian Habsburgs, Spain entered the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). Initially, success accompanied the Spaniards; their new sovereign, Philip IV (1621-1665), was called “king of the planet.” However, the war, in which Spain had to fight the Netherlands, France and Portugal, turned out to be too much for her. Ultimately, Spain lost its leading position in the international arena to France, which had revived its power. Now the role of a minor power awaited her. In the second half of the 17th century. France seized Spanish possessions along its northern borders and then laid claim to Spain itself. The fate of the country was now decided by other powers during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). In Madrid, instead of the Habsburgs, the Buffbons established themselves, and Spain entered a new period in its history.
The rise of Spanish culture
The artistic ideals of the Renaissance and the ideology of humanism had virtually no impact on the culture of Spain, but the period of its external power was accompanied by a genuine flowering of original Spanish art. This was the golden age of Spanish literature and painting.
Signs of cultural upsurge appeared already in the first half of the 16th century, but it reached a special scale under Philip II. A great power needed great art, and the Spanish king understood this very well. The royal power, like the once Renaissance sovereigns of Italy, acted as a patron of the fine arts. During the reign of Philip II, large-scale construction was carried out, enriching Spain with a number of architectural monuments. A new royal residence, El Escorial, was built near Madrid, which became the most remarkable monument of the era.
Spanish culture of that time achieved the greatest success in the field of painting. Taking the baton from Italy, Spain became the country in which European painting took the next big step in its development.
The first great Spanish artist was El Greco (1541-1614). A native of the Greek island of Crete, he settled in Toledo in 1577, where he became a leading representative of the mystical movement in Spanish art. Following this, the rapid development of the national school of painting began. Artists X. Ribeira (1591-1652) and F. Zurbaran (1598-1669) depicted mainly religious and mythological subjects on their canvases.
Spain was especially glorified by its greatest artist, the court painter of Philip IV Diego Velazquez (1599-1660). Among his masterpieces are numerous portraits of the king, members of his family and associates; the famous painting “The Capture of Breda”, dedicated to one of the episodes of the war with the Netherlands. Bartolome Esteban Murillo (1617-1682), the last in this brilliant galaxy, became the founder of the everyday genre in Spanish art. He became the first president of the Seville Academy of Fine Arts.
The most noticeable phenomenon in the field of literature was the development of the chivalric romance, interest in which was stimulated both by memories of the past exploits of the Spanish knights and by continuous wars in Europe and in the colonies. During this period, the great Spanish writer Miguel Cervantes (1547-1616), author of the immortal “Don Quixote,” lived and created his works. This peculiar parody of a chivalric romance reflected the deep decline of the Spanish nobility and the collapse of its ideals.
Already at the end of the 15th century. Modern Spanish drama began to emerge, based on the original traditions of folk culture. The theater played a huge role in the cultural life of Spain during its heyday. In the first half of the 17th century. A genuine revolution took place in this area; Spanish drama took a leading position in European culture. Lope de Vega (1562-1635) is considered the founder of Spanish national drama, whose plays have not left the theater stage to this day. He proved himself to be a master of the “comedy of cloak and sword.” Another major Spanish playwright was Pedro Calderon (1600-1681), the founder of the “drama of honor.”
The most important consequence of the development of literature was the formation of a single Spanish language, which was based on the Castilian dialect.
The achievements of the Spaniards in music were impressive. The most common musical instrument back in the 16th century. became a guitar that, following the Spaniards, fell in love with many other peoples of the world and has not lost its popularity to this day. Spain became the birthplace of such a song genre as romance.
The artistic style of that time, which replaced the Renaissance, was called Baroque. He was distinguished by a freer artistic style, rejection of rigid canons, expansion of themes and a broad search for new subjects in art. But if Baroque became a style common in many European countries, then the so-called Moorish style remained specifically Spanish. Borrowing much from the artistic heritage of the Arab East, it, combined with the traditions of late Gothic, gave birth to many architectural masterpieces. The Alhambra Palace in Granada can be considered the most characteristic of this style.
The development of navigation, geographical discoveries, the exploration of the New World, as well as constant wars posed many practical problems for Spanish science, contributing to the development of natural science, economics, political and legal sciences. Spanish legal scholars of this period were among the founders of the science of international law, which arose in heated polemics with English and Dutch jurists who defended the positions of their countries in the fight against Spain.
From the work of the Spanish economist Don Jerónimo de Ustariza, “The Theory and Practice of Trade and Navigation,” first published in 1724.
“... It is clear that Spain is experiencing a decline only because she neglected trade and did not establish numerous manufactories throughout the vast expanses of her kingdom ... the firmly established principle is that the more the import of foreign goods exceeds the export of ours, the sooner and more inevitably it will be our ruin...
In the same way, it is clear that in order for this trade to be useful to us and bring us great benefits... it is necessary that we make use of the abundance and excellent qualities of our raw materials. Finally, we must strictly apply all those means that will give us the opportunity to sell to foreigners more products of our production than they sell us of their own...
The main thing is that we need to remove the obstacles that we ourselves have erected in the way of the development of manufactures and the sale of their products both outside the state and within it. These obstacles consist of heavy taxes on the foodstuffs that the workers consume, on the raw materials that they process; in an excessive and repeated tax... on every sale, in a tax on fabrics exported from the kingdom."
References:
V.V. Noskov, T.P. Andreevskaya / History from the end of the 15th to the end of the 18th century
Socio-economic and political development of Spain in the 16th century. Between old and new.
Spain, which completed by the end of the 15th century. the reconquista and, by this time, transformed into a single state (as a result of the unification of Castile and Aragon in 1479), immediately took one of the first places among the states of Europe. It included almost the entire Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of its western part, which formed the territory of Portugal. Spain also belonged to the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Sicily and from 1504 ᴦ. Kingdom of Naples. The population of Spain was, according to the most conservative estimates, 7.5 million people, but it is possible that it reached 10 million during this period. Despite the significant successes of industrial development at the beginning of the 16th century. and the flourishing of a number of cities, Spain remained an agrarian country with a backward agriculture, in which there were no economic changes characteristic of the agriculture of England and other economically developed countries of Europe at that time.
The main branch of agriculture in most areas of Spain was sheep breeding. Several million sheep were driven across the entire peninsula twice a year; in densely populated areas, the herds walked along wide roads (cañadas), in more deserted places they scattered around the surrounding area. Attempts by peasants to fence their lands, thereby saving the fields from being trampled by herds, encountered resistance from the union of large sheep farmers - Mesta.
The power of the place reached at the beginning of the 16th century. its apogee, as the development of the textile industry in Western Europe sharply increased the demand for wool, and Mesta sold it to Flanders, France and other countries with great profit. The royal power, which found an important source of treasury income in sheep breeding, provided vigorous assistance to the Mesta, not caring that the activities of this union had a disastrous effect on the state of the country's agriculture as a whole. Royal Decree 1489 ᴦ. granted the Place the right to use community pastures for its needs, and on the basis of a decree of 1501 ᴦ. each member of the Place received a permanent lease of any piece of land on which his herds grazed for a season or at least several months, if the former holder of the land did not protest during this time. During the 16th century. Laws were repeatedly issued, each of which dealt with the allocation of lands plowed 10-12 years before the publication of this law for pasture. However, the legislation gave the Place convenient pretexts for seizing peasant lands. Royal officials and judges helped her destroy the hedges that surrounded these fields.
The position of the peasantry worsened even more as a result of various permanent and extraordinary taxes. In 1510 ᴦ. direct tax - service (servicio), previously levied irregularly, was turned into a permanent one by the middle of the 16th century. its size increased 3 times.
Being in such difficult living conditions, suffering from frequent crop failures and famines, many peasants became dependent on moneylenders, which completed their ruin. Concerned about the sharp decline in bread production and the rising cost of food supplies, the Cortes repeatedly complain that moneylenders buy standing grain from needy peasants at a low price, sell them bulls on credit and lend money at such a high interest rate that the peasants are unable to to pay it, and moneylenders buy up peasant lands for next to nothing. Both Spaniards and foreigners who visited Spain wrote about the insignificant size of the cultivated area and the huge wastelands.
Even when the lands passed into the hands of new owners, farming methods did not change. Agricultural technology was very primitive. Only in the south - in Granada, Andalusia and Valencia - Morisco peasants (converted to Christianity descendants of Arabs and Berbers who remained in the country after the completion of the reconquista) still widely used irrigation and grew grapes, olives, sugar cane, date palms, mulberry trees and citrus crops. The production of agricultural products in the country did not even satisfy local needs. All of Northern Spain needed imported foreign grain.
In Spain, the growth of commodity-money relations did not lead to the emergence of a capitalist mode of production in the countryside, but, on the contrary, contributed to the conservation of feudal relations and the decline of agriculture.
Aragon retained serfdom. The feudal lords still had complete power over the personality of the peasant: the peasant had to seek the master's consent to marriage, could be deprived of property, and imprisoned without trial; Moreover, some grandees exercised the right to kill a peasant without even listening to him first. Preservation of serfdom in Aragon in the 16th-17th centuries. received legal sanction: in their writings, Aragonese jurists who defended the interests of the feudal lords, referring to Roman law, equated peasants with Roman slaves and sought to prove that lords could control the life and death of peasants. The duties of the peasants of Aragon were especially burdensome: peasants paid for grazing livestock, for fishing, for entering into inheritance rights, often for grinding grain and baking bread; Feudal lords seized the property of peasants who died childless.
In Catalonia there were large peasant uprisings at the end of the 15th century. led to the elimination of the most difficult personal duties of peasants ("bad customs") and to the liberation of peasants for a ransom. At the same time, some lords arbitrarily determined the ransom amount or generally refused to release the peasants. For this reason, remnants of serfdom remained in this area in subsequent times.
In Castile, the majority of peasants have long been free. Only a relatively small stratum of peasants was under the judicial power of the feudal lords; these peasants had few duties (for shearing goats and sheep, for movable property, etc.). Free peasants - holders of the feudal lord's land - paid him a certain amount established by custom; they had the right to leave their plot of land and go elsewhere. During this period, when some of the peasants, as already indicated, were deprived of their land, a layer of landless farm laborers gradually grew - peons, often forced to work only for shelter and food. Many peasants left the village altogether and often turned into homeless beggars or vagabonds.
In the southern regions of Spain, the situation of the Moriscos, driven out of the best lands, was very difficult. They were based on the Spanish feudal lords who settled here, paid rent to their lords and high taxes to the state and church.
In the 16th century - during a period of increasing impoverishment of the peasantry, a fierce class struggle was going on in the Spanish countryside. The stubborn resistance of the peasants to Mesta's claims to peasant fields and communal lands to some extent restrained the scope of its activities, which caused such significant damage to the country's agriculture.
Social contradictions reached their greatest severity in Aragon. The peasants tried to seek relief from their fate by fleeing; sometimes entire villages left. So, in 1539 ᴦ. The lord of the village of Fabaro seized all the movable and immovable property of the peasants, punishing them for leaving the village. Peasants often submitted petitions to the king with a request to include this or that area in the crown lands, hoping in this way to be saved from the tyranny of the lords.
From time to time local uprisings broke out. The largest of them was the uprising of 1585. in the county of Rivagorza, located on the southern slope of the Pyrenees. The rebels organized their army and elected leaders. The entire county was in their hands. The Spanish peasants were joined by local Moriscos. The Aragonese Cortes, frightened by the large scale of the unrest, issued a decree that anyone who dared to rebel in arms against their lord would be subject to the death penalty. Only after the annexation of the county of Rivagorsa to the lands of the crown was it possible to suppress this uprising.
Catalan peasants also raised uprisings during this period, the main goal of which was the complete elimination of the remnants of serfdom.
The end of the 15th and especially the first half of the 16th century. are characterized by a significant rise in handicraft production, concentrated in the cities and urban districts of Spain, and the appearance in it of individual elements of capitalist production in the form of dispersed and centralized manufacture.
Seville, whose prosperity rested primarily on its monopoly on trade with the American colonies, was the largest center of trade, banking and industry. In its outskirts, cloth, soap, porcelain and silk were produced, the production of which Seville was far ahead of Granada. Seville maintained lively trade relations not only with the regions of Spain itself and the colonies in America, but also with Antwerp, the cities of England, Southern France, Italy and some port cities of Africa.
The greatest success was achieved in Spain in the production of cloth and silk fabrics, which were of high quality. In Toledo - one of the large industrial cities - in the middle of the 16th century. More than 50 thousand artisans and hired workers were employed in the production of cloth and silk fabrics, while in 1525 ᴦ. there were only 10 thousand of them. Toledo was also famous for its production of weapons and leather processing. Shipbuilding developed in Asturias and Vizcaya.
In terms of production volume and especially the quality of its fine cloths, Segovia occupied one of the first places. The ceramic industry was developed in addition to Seville, in Malaga, Murcia, Talavera and other cities. Some cities specialized in some narrow branch of industry: in Cuenca almost exclusively cloth hats of all colors were produced and exported to North Africa; gloves were made in Ocaña.
There were large manufacturing enterprises in the cloth industry (for example, some workshops in Segovia employed 200-300 workers), and in the coin production of Seville, Granada and Burgos. Scattered manufacturing began to develop in the vicinity of Toledo, Segovia, Seville, Cuenca and other cities. According to contemporaries, the textile industry of Seville was employed in the first half of the 16th century. 130 thousand people; this number also included spinners, most of whom lived in rural areas and worked in their homes for buyers.
The rise of crafts and more advanced forms of industrial production was brought about by a number of circumstances. The Spanish hidalgos - conquerors and robbers of the newly discovered New World - needed food, clothing and weapons. The colonies in America became rich buyers of Spanish goods, and paid for them in gold and silver. However, in Spain there was an accumulation of capital, which was extremely important for the organization of large enterprises.
The growth of production was also facilitated by the fact that a large number of free workers appeared, as the flight of peasants from the countryside assumed massive proportions. In some areas, beggars and vagabonds were forcibly turned into workers. In 1551 ᴦ. The Cortes of Castile submitted a characteristic petition: they asked that in every town with a population of over 1 thousand people a special official be appointed to detain all vagabonds and force them to work in industry.
Moreover, compared with the production of advanced European countries, the overall size of Spanish industry was quite modest. Thus, mining, despite rich natural resources, remained underdeveloped.
Due to the economic disunity of the provinces, which persisted even after the unification of the country, internal trade was poorly developed, although during this period Spain still had busy shopping centers - Medina del Camiao, widely known for its fairs, Burgos, etc.
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Economic disunity was preserved by the privileges of the provinces, which created obstacles to the development of trade relations with neighboring regions, and the privileges of individual grandees and cities. Numerous customs houses continued to function on the borders of Castile.
Spain's imports, even at the beginning of the 16th century - the time of its greatest economic prosperity - exceeded exports, and the latter was dominated by raw materials and agricultural products: olive oil, wines, fruits, leather and, above all, wool, as well as metals. It is significant that during the first half of the 16th century - the period of greatest development of cloth production in Spain - the export of wool, a raw material, from the country not only did not decrease, but even increased: from 1512 to 1557 ᴦ. the volume of exported wool increased 3 times. Iron was exported to France even when Spain was at war with it. The Spanish textile industry not only failed to conquer the external European market, but also could not successfully compete with Dutch, English and French goods on the domestic market. The Spanish nobility preferred to buy imported goods, which greatly contributed to the further decline of Spanish industry, the first signs of which appeared already in the 30s of the 16th century. During these years, the Cortes complained about the poor quality of Spanish shoes and cloth. From the middle of the 16th century. There is an increasingly sharp decline in industrial production associated with the general economic decline of Spain.
Socio-economic and political development of Spain in the 16th century. Between old and new. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Socio-economic and political development of Spain in the 16th century. Between the old and the new." 2017, 2018.
In the first half of the 16th century. Spain occupied a leading position in geographical discoveries, colonial conquests, trade with America and in the system of international relations. However, Spain's rise was short-lived. From the middle of the 16th century. The progressive economic and political decline of the country began. However, its elements were already present in the socio-economic and political system of Spain in the first half of the 16th century, despite all the external splendor of this era.
State of the economy. Individual regions of Spain differed sharply in their socio-economic conditions and the position of the peasantry. In Castile, the central province of Spain, peasants have been personally free since the Reconquista. They could leave the land and had certain rights to their holding. In Aragon, the feudal lords still had complete power over the personality of the peasant, including the right to kill him with impunity. The duties of Aragonese peasants were especially difficult. In Catalonia after the uprisings of the late 15th century. peasants achieved personal freedom.
From the beginning of the 16th century. further urban growth and the emergence of an American market for agricultural products stimulated the intensification of agriculture. New vineyards and olive groves appeared in southern Spain and Castile. Wine, olive oil and other products were widely exported not only to the American colonies, but also to other European countries.
The well-known economic recovery did not, however, affect peasant farming. Only the Moriscos who lived in the south of the country have long cultivated grapes, olives, sugar cane, rice, mulberries and citrus fruits. Peasants, who still grew mainly grain, had to sell their grain on the market at low prices set by the state, while prices for other goods were rising rapidly. Going bankrupt, many peasants became dependent on moneylenders.
A real scourge for peasant farming, especially in Castile, was transhumance sheep farming. Several million sheep belonging to the grandees were annually driven from Castile to the south, to Extremadura and Andalusia, and then back to the north. The herds moved along wide roads that cut through sown fields and even vineyards and olive groves. Attempts by peasants to fence off their fields encountered resistance from the union of large cattle breeders - the Mesta, which achieved power in the first half of the 16th century. The increased demand for wool (due to the development of cloth making in Western Europe) provided it with huge profits. The royal power, which found an important source of treasury income in the wool trade, provided patronage to the union. The traveling judges of the Mesta were in charge of all controversial cases with the peasants. Peasants increasingly left the lands, going to the cities, turning into vagabonds and beggars. Due to the ruin of the peasantry, grain production was reduced. Already in the first half of the 16th century. During the lean years, Spain did not have enough of its own grain.
At this time, Spain experienced a significant rise in handicraft production, in which individual elements of capitalist manufacture appeared. The leading industry was the cloth industry. In its main centers - in Segovia, Toledo, Cordoba and Cuenca - large manufacturing enterprises developed. In the vicinity of these cities lived many spinners, weavers and other workers engaged in scattered 430
manufactory. Cloths were also made in Zaragoza (Aragon) and Barcelona (Catalonia). Glazed earthenware products were produced in Seville and Talavera. Vizcaya was an important center of shipbuilding and metallurgy.
The production of silk fabrics, which had survived since the times of the Arabs, continued to develop in Toledo, Granada, Valencia, and Murcia. Malaga, maintaining its old guild organization. Unlike cloth, silk fabrics - taffeta, satin, velvet, etc. - were of high quality and were exported to Flanders, France, Italy and North Africa. From the previous era, Spain also inherited the art of making embossed and patterned colored leather, which was famous far beyond the country's borders. Weapons were also made: swords, daggers, etc.
The rise in industrial production was greatly facilitated by the expansion of the market not only in Spain itself, but since the 30s. and in its American colonies. The Spanish hidalgos who moved there bought clothes and weapons, paying for them in gold and silver. The growth of new types of enterprises was also facilitated by the emergence of a significant number of free hands as a result of the flight of peasants from the countryside. In Valladolid, Salamanca and some other cities, beggars and vagabonds were forcibly turned into workers.
However, industry absorbed only a very small part of this free force. It lagged behind the production of advanced European countries: technology was relatively poorly developed, production costs were high. Spain's imports consistently exceeded its exports, with the latter dominated by raw materials and agricultural products. Even in the first half of the 16th century. - during a period of significant growth in cloth production, the export of wool from Spain not only did not decrease, but increased approximately three times.
In the 16th century There was a significant revival of foreign trade. Seville became the largest trading center, where all trade with America was concentrated. The richest merchants of Spain lived here. There were also many foreign merchants in the city, especially Italian ones. Two flotillas, consisting of more than 100 ships loaded with everything necessary for the settlers, regularly departed from Seville to America;
they returned with a cargo of precious metals and colonial goods. Medina del Campo was famous for its fairs:
goods were brought here from different European countries. It became an important center for credit operations.
Due to the economic fragmentation of the country, the development of domestic trade lagged far behind the growth of foreign trade.
Beginning of the reign of Charles I. In 1516, after the death of Ferdinand of Aragon, his grandson (the eldest son of Ferdinand's daughter Juana the Mad) Charles I became king of Spain. By this time, Charles already owned the possessions of his deceased father, Archduke Philip the Fair of Austria - Franche-Comté and the Netherlands.
lands. Soon, in 1519, after the death of his paternal grandfather Maximilian I of Habsburg, Charles was elected emperor of the “Holy Roman Empire” under the name Charles V. Thus, Spain became an integral part of a huge empire, which included, in addition to Spain, its Italian possessions (Southern Italy, Sicily, Sardinia) and colonies in America, Germany, as well as Franche-Comté and the Netherlands. No wonder contemporaries argued that the sun never sets in Charles’s monarchy.
Charles V, who grew up and was educated in Flanders, was not familiar with Spain or even the Spanish language. When the 17-year-old king, surrounded by Flemish advisers, finally came to Spain in the fall of 1517, he was met with hostility. With difficulty, he managed to get the Cortes of Castile, Aragon and Catalonia to recognize him as the king of Spain and receive a monetary subsidy. Charles began to generously distribute all kinds of privileges, monetary gifts and lucrative government positions to the Flemings. The news of Charles's election as emperor and his upcoming departure to Germany increased the discontent of the Spaniards. The Cortes, convened by him in 1519 in order to obtain a new subsidy, demanded that Charles stay outside the country for no more than three years, so that the export of money abroad should be stopped and positions should no longer be filled by foreigners. Only a promise to fulfill these demands and large cash handouts helped Karl achieve a subsidy.
Revolt of the Comuneros. In May 1520, Charles sailed from Spain, leaving Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht, who came with him from the Netherlands, as his governor. In Castile, a powerful uprising of urban communes (comuneros in Spanish) immediately began.
At first, various segments of the population took part in the uprising. Rich townspeople were dissatisfied not only with the rule of the Flemings and the financial extortion of the king, but also with the fact that Charles, continuing the absolutist policy of Ferdinand and Isabella, had little regard for the Cortes and began to limit the self-government of cities. It was not for nothing that the townspeople of Toledo, who were the first to rise up against him, called on other cities for joint action in defense of the liberties of the kingdom. The overwhelming majority of the rebels were artisans and the urban lower classes, who suffered most from increased tax oppression. In some areas they were actively supported by impoverished peasants. At first, grandees and hidalgos also joined the uprising. The grandees sought to use the actions of the cities against the central government in order to restore their former privileges. Small and medium-sized feudal lords also retained (to a certain extent) the desire for independence that they enjoyed during the constant wars with the Moors. In addition, the Spanish feudal lords were no less outraged than the cities by the dominance of foreigners, who forced them out of profitable and influential positions.
In May - June, a number of Castilian cities (Segovia, Burgos, Avila, etc.) joined Toledo. They expelled the corregidores (royal officials) and elected a new, more democratic government. On July 29, deputies from five cities gathered in Avila, formed the “Holy Junta” (union) and elected a representative of the Castilian nobility, Juan de Padilla, as its head and commander of the army. After the terrible defeat of Medina del Campo by royal troops, the uprising swept through almost all the communes of northern and central Castile. The junta declared Hadrian deposed. But later she showed indecisiveness. Hoping to reach a compromise with Charles, the junta sent him a petition in October outlining the demands of the communes. The cities still insisted that the king live in Spain, that only Spaniards be appointed to the highest government positions, and that gold and silver not be exported abroad. The Cortes, the petition said, should be convened regularly - every three years. At the same time, the townspeople for the first time touched upon the interests of the nobility and nobility: they demanded the imposition of taxes on the nobles and the return to the treasury of lands and mines stolen by the aristocracy. They also sought to deprive grandees and nobles of the right to hold positions in city government.
This served as a turning point in the uprising: hostility between the nobles and the cities flared up again. Hoping to use it to his advantage. Charles agreed in a letter to give some concessions to the nobles. The final impetus that prompted the majority of the grandees and hidalgos to move to the royal camp was the further development of the movement, which at this stage assumed an anti-feudal character. Craftsmen and plebs declared that the privileges and luxury of the grandees were leading to the impoverishment of the kingdom. The peasants of Castile began to attack their lords. Some cities left the vacillating “Holy Junta”. In November 1520, a new organization was formed in Valladolid, representing the most radical part of the rebels - the “Junta of Detachments”. She behaved, in contrast to the “Holy Junta,” as the highest authority in Castile. The manifesto she issued in the spring of the following year said: “From now on, the war against the grandees, caballeros [nobles] and other enemies of the kingdom, against their property and palaces must be waged by fire, sword and destruction.”
The decisive battle between the rebels and the royal troops took place in April 1521 near the village of Villalar. The noble army completely defeated the poorly organized and armed detachments of the “Holy Junta”, which consisted mainly of urban militias and peasants. Padilla and other leaders were captured and executed. Only one city - Toledo - continued to resist steadfastly for six months under the leadership of Padilla's widow, Maria Pacheco, enduring all the disasters of the siege. When in July 1522 Charles returned to Spain with an army
German Landsknechts, the uprising was already completely suppressed.
The failure of the uprising of the free cities of Castile was not accidental. In Spain, provincial separatism still persisted. Aragon and Catalonia did not join the movement. Almost simultaneously with the uprising of the communes of Castile, major uprisings broke out in Valencia and on the island of Mallorca, but the Castilian cities did not enter into contact with the rebels. Instead of trying to unite within Spain all the forces that opposed the central government, the cities preferred to appeal for help to foreign powers - Portugal and Spain's enemy - France, who refused to help the rebels. Even the Castilian communes that opposed Charles did not immediately unite into a single union. “... The main service to Charles was rendered by the sharp class antagonism between the nobles and the townspeople, which helped him weaken both.” At the same time, the guild burghers, who acted indecisively from the very beginning, did not support (despite the discord between him and the nobility) an anti-feudal movement of impoverished urban artisans, plebeian masses and peasants, and this movement was defeated.
The revolt of the Comuneros was controversial. Despite commercial and industrial development, the cities still largely retained their medieval appearance; just started in them
the birth of the bourgeoisie.
The Castilian communes, which in the previous period supported royal power in its struggle to subjugate the grandees, demanded a return to the “good customs of the times of the Catholic kings” (Ferdinand and Isabella) when royal power affected self-government and the privileges of cities. Thus, the communes of Castile opposed not so much the individual negative aspects of the policy of the Spanish absolute monarchy of this time, in particular against financial extortion, but rather the centralizing policy of absolutism.
Spain's place in the Habsburg Monarchy. Charles's power was a conglomerate of disunited states and territories that were at different stages of development, differing in the nature of their economy and political structure. Meanwhile, Charles cherished a plan to create a “worldwide Christian monarchy.” Pompously declaring that he was the “standard bearer of God,” Charles considered himself the head of the Catholics in the fight against the “infidels” - the Turks, and later the German Protestants. His great-power policy also subordinated his actions on the Iberian Peninsula: Spain was the main source of funds for his campaigns and supplied the soldiers he needed.
"Marx K. Revolutionary Spain. - Marx K., Engels F. Soch., vol. 10, p. 430. 434
During the Italian wars, Charles managed to capture most of Northern Italy. Trying to stop the further advance of the Turks into Europe, Charles, having collected a large army, took Tunisia from them (1535). But further struggle for North Africa was unsuccessful, and Tunisia's vassalage soon became nominal. Even the western part of the Mediterranean Sea was plied by the ships of Turkish corsairs. Their attacks caused considerable harm to Spanish trade.
After Charles abdicated the imperial and Spanish thrones in 1556, his son Philip II (1556-1598) became king of Spain, who also inherited Franche-Comté and the Netherlands, Spanish possessions in Italy and America.
Spain under Philip II. With the accession of Philip II, a raging religious fanatic, Spain entered one of the darkest periods in its history. The king sought the merciless extermination of heretics and the establishment of unlimited dominion over his subjects. The activities of the Inquisition intensified even more, which essentially became part of the state apparatus, and the inquisitors became officials of the king, appointed and removed at his discretion. In Spain, not only were Lutherans and Calvinists completely exterminated, but anyone suspected (often without any reason) of the slightest deviation from orthodox doctrine was persecuted. Contributing to the further strengthening of royal power, the Inquisition sometimes dealt with political opponents of absolutism. During the second half of the 16th century. For the glory of the Catholic Church, more than 100 auto-da-fe (Spanish “act of faith”) were organized - solemnly staged public ceremonies proclaiming the verdict of the Inquisition over heretics. Then the heretics were handed over to the secular authorities to carry out the sentence, which in most cases doomed them to be burned. Sometimes dozens of people were burned at the stake at the same time. Supervision over the spiritual life of the country was concentrated in the hands of the Inquisition. She was in charge of censorship and published indexes of banned books.
The Maurices were subjected to intensified persecution by the Inquisition. They were forbidden to keep Arabic names, speak and read Arabic, and adhere to their original customs. Suspecting the Moriscos of secret adherence to Islam, the Inquisition kept a vigilant watch over them. In 1568, the Moriscos of Granada and Andalusia rebelled. Troops were sent; by a special edict, Philip II allowed soldiers to plunder the local population. The inhabitants of some towns were completely exterminated. Only in In 1572, the uprising was suppressed; the Moriscos of Granada were resettled to other areas of the peninsula.
Philip II preferred to manage his possessions and command the Spanish troops without leaving the majestic but gloomy palace of Escorial, which he built near the new capital.
tsy - Madrid. Distrustful and suspicious, he sought to concentrate in his hands all the threads of governing the country. Numerous informants reported to him about everything that was happening in the state.
Philip II led the Catholic reaction in the international arena. Like Karl, he relentlessly pursued two goals:
to establish Spanish hegemony in Europe and achieve the complete triumph of Catholicism by exterminating all heretics, be they French Huguenots, German Protestants or adherents of the Church of England.
In the 60s The Netherlands rebelled against Spanish absolutism. As a result of a long and fierce struggle with them, which absorbed huge amounts of money, Spain lost the industrialized and rich northern provinces of the Netherlands.
Spain's main enemy was Protestant England. There was an intense struggle between the powers for supremacy at sea. Philip tirelessly supported conspiracies against Elizabeth, at the center of which the Scottish Queen Mary Stuart was always found. But in 1587 Maria was executed. Open conflict between England and Spain was inevitable. Philip decided to conquer England. A large fleet called the “Invincible Armada” was sent to the shores of England in 1588. The fleet was supposed to land troops in England - an army from the Netherlands, reinforced by reinforcements sent from Spain. Off the coast of England, the "Invincible Armada" was completely defeated by the English fleet. The invasion of England did not take place. Some of the ships of the armada were lost during a storm on the way back; Only half of the ships returned to Spanish ports. Victory was on the side of England - one of the most advanced countries of that time. Spain's naval power was dealt a mortal blow.
During the civil wars in France, Philip II, fearing a Protestant victory, became close to the Guises, who led the Catholic camp. In 1590 he sent troops to France to fight the Huguenots in Brittany, Languedoc and other places. The following year, a permanent Spanish garrison was introduced into Paris. Philip hoped to marry his daughter to one of the Catholic contenders for the royal throne and thus establish the supremacy of Spain over France. But in 1594, Paris was occupied by the former head of the Protestants, King Henry IV. The war continued; in 1598, the critical state of finances forced Philip to make peace with the French king and recognize the integrity and independence of France.
Only twice were Philip II's actions successful. Continuing the fight against the Turks, Spain, in alliance with Venice and the Pope, sent a fleet to the coast of the Balkan Peninsula (1571). In the Gulf of Lepanto, a huge Spanish-Venetian flotilla of those times, numbering more than 200 large ships, after the fire
In a precision battle, the Turkish fleet was completely defeated. Almost All The ships of the Ottoman Empire were destroyed. However, due to contradictions between members of the anti-Turkish league, Philip II was unable to take sufficient advantage of the results of the victory.
Finally, in 1581, after the death of the Portuguese king during a military expedition to North Africa, who left no heirs, Philip, winning over the Portuguese nobility and clergy with promises and intrigues, achieved the annexation of Portugal with its vast colonial possessions to Spain. For a time, the Iberian Peninsula turned into a single state. But Portugal was part of the Spanish state for only 60 years.
These were the results of the international policy of Philip II. Despite the presence of a first-class army, which borrowed Swiss military tactics, and large resources in the form of American treasures, this policy was doomed to failure: establishing the hegemony of feudal Spain during the formation of national states and the emergence of a new, capitalist system was impossible.
Features of Spanish absolutism. After the suppression of the uprisings of the 20s. the position of absolutism was strengthened. The cities partially retained self-government, but all city positions were held by nobles. City deputies in the Cortes were also hidalgos who lived in cities. The grandees were excluded from participating in the Cortes. The Cortes lost their right to make laws and authorize their repeal; their function was actually reduced to approving subsidies from royal power: the hidalgos willingly agreed to taxes from which they themselves were exempt. A bureaucratic apparatus obedient to the monarch was formed; The ranks of the bureaucracy were filled with townspeople and hidalgos.
Yet complete centralization of management was not achieved. The former independent states, having turned into provinces of Spain, retained a certain autonomy, their own tax systems, different laws, separate Cortes and other governing bodies with their historically established features. Even after suppressing the uprising of nobles and townspeople in Aragon (1591), Philip did not dare to liquidate it, but only significantly limited its autonomy.
Spanish absolutism was not similar in nature to English or French absolutism. Deprived of political power, the grandees retained and even strengthened their economic power throughout the 16th century, further expanding their land holdings. In return for their former independence, they received titles and honorary positions. A significant part of the aristocracy turned into courtiers and moved to the capital. At the magnificent court of Philip II, a prim and complex etiquette reigned, which served as a model for other courts in Europe. The church, which was dependent on the from
royal power, which was also one of the features of Spanish absolutism.
In Spain, as in England and France, the main social support of absolutism were the middle and small nobles - hidalgos. However, their position was very peculiar. Even after the end of the reconquista, the Spanish feudal lords remained aloof from economic activity. In search of new military exploits, and most importantly, easy ways to get rich, the nobles took part in the wars waged by the Spanish kings. Many hidalgos went as conquistadors to America, where there were the greatest opportunities for conquest and plunder. These hidalgos directly appropriated American treasures. Through the mediation of the state, which received a large share of these riches, American gold and silver also reached another part of the Spanish nobles: in the form of salaries paid for military service or, less often, for service in the state apparatus, in the form of pensions, etc. Acquisition of New World precious metals by nobles determined their complete disinterest in the economic development of their country, which sharply distinguished them not only from the English nobility (part of which adapted to the changes that were taking place), but also from the French, because the latter’s income was largely dependent on centralized rent, and a considerable share of it was taxes on trade and industry. Therefore, in Spain, the alliance of the noble absolute monarchy with the cities, which was outlined under Ferdinand and Isabella, did not develop.
The decline of the Spanish economy and its causes. Thus, the Spanish absolute monarchy, unlike other absolutist states in Europe, almost from the very beginning of its existence did not play a progressive role in the development of the country. This is precisely the reason for what began in the middle of the 16th century. economic decline.
Since American treasures were concentrated primarily in Spain, and from the Iberian Peninsula they came to other European countries, the “price revolution” affected Spain with particular force. It started in the 30s. XVI century, by the middle of the century, prices for agricultural products (except grain), raw materials and industrial goods approximately doubled, and by the end of the 16th century. approximately four times (and in Andalusia even five times). At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. prices have stabilized. Since Spanish industrial goods were more expensive than those of countries with more developed industries and were also inferior in quality, they could not withstand the competition of foreign goods. Spanish products have lost their market in other European countries. Moreover, they began to lose it in the American colonies and even in Spain itself.
This could have been avoided by consistently implementing a system of protectionist measures. But politics
the central government, reflecting the interests of the nobility, which did not want to take into account the interests of the Spanish economy, ran counter to the urgent needs of industry. The government, which became close to Mesta and was interested in receiving duties, usually allowed the export of some wool to Flanders, France and Italy. As a result, the main branch of Spanish production - the cloth industry - was in dire need of raw materials; In addition, the export of wool contributed to an increase in prices for it in the country. Other types of raw materials were also exported - raw silk, metals. In addition, Charles, who considered the Netherlands and Spain as components of the state, did not put any obstacles to the sale of Dutch woolen fabrics, linens, lace, and carpets in Spain. The government also allowed the import of goods from other countries: English, French and Florentine cloth, French paper, etc. Philip II banned the import of foreign cloth for the first time, but at the same time the government willingly gave special permission for their import for a fee,
The economic isolation of individual provinces was completely preserved; sometimes the duties levied on Spanish goods at internal customs were higher than the duties on goods imported from other countries.
The second reason for the decline of Spain was rooted in the international policy of Spanish absolutism. The country's national interests were sacrificed to this policy, which completely exhausted Spain's financial resources. Needing funds, Charles I and Philip II constantly increased direct and indirect taxes. During the first half of the 16th century. the amount of direct taxes increased fourfold. In the second half of the century, the alcabala, a ten percent tax on the sale of goods, increased especially rapidly. The rise in taxes ruined the tax-paying classes - peasants and townspeople.
Not content with the funds obtained in this way, the Spanish kings took out huge loans from South German, Florentine and Genoese bankers, giving them in return important privileges in their possessions. The Fuggers, who lent money to Charles in 1519 to bribe the German electors, received a lease of mercury deposits in Spain, the largest in Europe. German bankers were given the right to trade with America, export silk from Granada, etc.
By the time of Charles's abdication, the national debt had reached a huge amount - 7 million ducats. Philip II, continuing to resort to loans, embarked on a dangerous path: he declared state bankruptcy three times, which brought even greater disorder into the economic life of the country. His declaration of bankruptcy in 1575, which bankrupted both foreign and Spanish creditors of the crown, meant the collapse of Medina del Campo.
As a result of paying interest on loans to foreign financiers and waging endless wars, gold and silver floated away
behind border. Part of the American wealth that ended up in the hands of the Spanish nobility was spent unproductively and also mostly went to other countries as payment for foreign goods purchased by the nobles. The church, which led the feudal-Catholic reaction, which had such a severe impact on the development of Spain, also played a significant role in the economic decline of the country. Her persecution resulted in the extermination and expulsion from the country of the most enterprising elements of the Morisco population (see below).
The decline of the Spanish economy gradually affected all sectors of the economy: agriculture, then industry, and somewhat later trade.
Agriculture was in disastrous condition. The flight of peasants from villages became widespread. At the end of the 16th century. Cultivation of approximately a third of cultivated land ceased. Since the 70s The constant import of grain into the country began: French, Sicilian, and later mainly Polish and even Russian wheat.
From the second half of the 16th century. Cloth making was increasingly reduced:
by the middle of the 17th century. in Cuenca, Avila, Zaragoza, the production of cloth has almost ceased; even in such a large industrial center as Toledo, in 1665 only 13 machines remained. Equally profound was the decline of silk production and other industries. Spain was now completely dependent on foreign goods. The population of industrial cities decreased sharply.
The collapse of industry and increased taxation led to a reduction in trade. As a result of repeated damage to the coins, gold and silver soon disappeared from circulation altogether;
the use of bulky copper money made trade transactions extremely difficult. Since the 70s the only city that remained a busy trading center for some time was Seville, which retained a monopoly on trade with America. The highest volume of cargo turnover in Spanish-American trade dates back to the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries. However, foreign goods occupied the main place in this trade, and merchants from other countries increasingly sailed from Seville to America under the Spanish flag. In the following decades, the robbery of Spanish ships by corsairs of England, Holland and France and the widespread development of smuggling trade between these countries and America, which Spain was unable to prevent, gradually caused the decline of Spanish-American trade, and with it the decline of Seville.
In this situation, entrepreneurs and merchants withdrew their capital from industry and trade. In an effort to find a non-risky use for their money, they invested this capital in land (which gave them the title of nobility), bought government positions, farmed out taxes, or purchased government bonds.
Spain in the first half of the 17th century. During the reign of Philip III (1598-1621), not a trace remained of the former greatness and power of Spain. Philip III had an insurmountable aversion to public affairs. All power was concentrated in the hands of the royal favorite, the mediocre Duke of Lerma. The court camarilla - Lerma, his relatives and minions - shamelessly plundered the treasury. The grandees, who owned colossal wealth, taking advantage of the weakening of the central government, again regained political dominance.
Most of the hidalgos, receiving negligible income from their ruined estates and despising all work, led an almost beggarly lifestyle. At the same time, the minor nobles tried in every possible way to hide their poverty so as not to damage the prestige of their noble family. Hidalgos often sought to get to the court, which was distinguished by its extraordinary luxury, and joined the ranks of the clergy, officials or army.
Most of the kingdom's income was appropriated by predatory officials, very numerous, since the government, seeking sources of income, created more and more new positions with the aim of selling them. The clergy increased and many monasteries were built. The church owned a quarter of all lands.
Further increases in taxes made any productive work generally unprofitable. Peasants who left their plots in droves and were unable to find work in the cities, as well as former artisans, became vagabonds and beggars. “The majority of Spaniards turned into real slackers,” wrote one of his contemporaries, “some into slacker nobles, others into slacker beggars.”
The expulsion of the Moriscos, to whom in the previous era owed their flourishing agriculture and silk production in the southern and eastern regions of Spain, further deepened the decline of the country. The Edict of Expulsion of the Moriscos was issued in 1609 at the request of the clergy. The Moriscos were accused of adherence to Islam and secret relations with the enemies of Spain. They were ordered to leave the country and move to North Africa. Only 6% of the Moriscos were left “so that, as the decree stated, their houses, sugar industries, rice fields and irrigation canals could be preserved, and so that they [the Moriscos] could teach the new settlers their trade.” The Moriscos were allowed to take with them only that part of the movable property that they could carry;
many of them were also robbed along the way. Some of the Moriscos of Valencia rebelled; as a result of fierce fighting, their resistance was broken. In total, about 500 thousand people were expelled from Spain.
During the reign of Philip IV (1621-1665), power was in the hands of his favorite, Olivares. At this time, the economic life of Spain finally came to a standstill. For the first half of the 17th century. as a result of frequent famines, epidemics, wars, expulsion of Maurice-
kovs and emigration to the colonies, Spain lost about a quarter of its population. Despite the complete economic depletion of the country, the government continued to pursue an aggressive and reactionary foreign policy. Even in the last years of the reign of Philip III, the Spanish Habsburgs, as Austrian allies, intervened in the Thirty Years' War that began in Europe. Energetic opposition from other states, including France and Sweden, who were determined to prevent Habsburg hegemony in Europe, led to an unfavorable outcome for Spain in this ruinous war. According to the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, she was forced to recognize the independence of Holland, and according to the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659, which ended the war with France, she was forced to cede Roussillon on the Pyrenean border and part of the Spanish Netherlands - the Artois region, a number of fortresses in Flanders and Luxembourg.
At the same time, uprisings broke out in Catalonia and Portugal. Organized by the Portuguese nobles at the end of 1640, the conspiracy was supported by the residents of Lisbon. Portugal separated from Spain. The terrible uprising in Catalonia was caused by an increase in taxes, as well as attempts by the absolute monarchy to eliminate the privileges, customs, judicial autonomy of the province, and the rights of the Cortes. Castilian soldiers stationed in the cities and villages of Catalonia did not receive pay for a long time and were engaged in systematic robbery of the population. In the spring of 1640, highlanders from the Heron region attacked the rampaging soldiers. In June, the peasants of the mountainous regions entered Barcelona; The townspeople joined them. The Viceroy and a number of other persons associated with the Spanish government were killed. All of Catalonia rose up. The troops thrown against the rebels failed, and the war dragged on. Only in October 1652, after a fifteen-month siege, did Barcelona surrender. Philip IV had to confirm all the liberties of Catalonia. This uprising most clearly revealed the political weakness of Spain, which had become one of the minor powers of Europe.
Spanish literature. The omnipotence of the Inquisition influenced the culture of Spain in the 16th-17th centuries. And yet the Inquisition failed to suppress the spiritual life of society. In the middle of the 16th century. A very unique genre of literature arose - the “punter novel”. In the first of them - the anonymous "Lazarillo from Tormes" - and subsequent ones, the main character is a rogue who, by any means, strives to achieve success in a harsh and merciless world, depicted critically and sometimes grotesquely.
The greatest writer of this era is Miguel Cervantes de Saavedra (1547-1616). Cervantes was born into the family of a surgeon, a poor hidalgo. His turbulent life gave him the opportunity to become closely acquainted with Spanish reality. He took part in the Battle of Lepanto and continued to fight after being wounded.
Niyya, although his left arm was paralyzed, was captured by pirates on his way to Spain and spent five years in Algeria; later in Spain he was imprisoned twice without being guilty. He spent the last period of his life, completely devoted to literary work, in poverty. At this time, a work was created that immortalized his name - “The Cunning Hidalgo Don Quixote of La Mancha” (the first volume was published in 1605, the second in 1615).
Conceived as a parody of the extremely popular chivalric romances of that time, Don Quixote quickly outgrew its original concept. Its main character is a tragicomic figure. Living in a fictional world, he mistakes inns for castles, mills for giants, a flock of sheep for an enemy army. His absurd adventures end in beatings that fall on him and his squire Sancho Panza. But the main quality of Don Quixote is becoming increasingly clear: he acts as a champion of justice, a defender, in his own words, of “the disadvantaged and oppressed by the powerful of this world” and at the same time shows amazing resilience. In his reasoning, madness is intricately intertwined with wisdom. The novel gradually intensifies its humanistic sound. “Blood is inherited,” says Don Quixote, “virtue is acquired, and it costs much more than blood.” The hero acquires a kind of tragic greatness. The appearance of the simple-minded and narrow-minded peasant Sancho Panza also changes. As a joke supposedly made by the governor of the island, the illiterate Sancho displays common sense, selflessness and kindness, insight in resolving legal battles. Don Quixote represents the pinnacle of Spanish literature.
Drama has received particular development in Spain. The founder of classical national drama was Lope Feliz de Vega Carpio (1562-1535). Lope de Vega wrote about 1,800 comedies (of which 426 survive) and many other works. Having rejected the classical rules of ancient drama - the unity of time, place and action, combining “tragic with funny” in his plays, Lope de. Vega made their form flexible, suitable for a variety of subjects. Brilliantly educated, he drew his plots from Spanish epics and folk romances, Italian short stories, comedies of the Renaissance, and most importantly - from contemporary life in Spain. With great skill and his inherent wealth of imagination, Lope de Vega created plays full of intense dynamism: everyday comedies (in particular, the so-called comedies of the cloak and sword), historical dramas, etc. His heroes belong to various strata of society - from grandees and hidalgos to simple peasants The best of his historical plays, the folk drama Fuente Ovejuna, shows the heroic behavior of the peasants of this village, who rebelled in 1476 against their lord, who kidnapped the bride of one of their fellow villagers. Heroes of the comedies “Dog in the Manger”, “The Valencian Widow”, 443
The “dance teacher” and others actively defend their right to happiness. Lope de Vega's plays were intended for the public theater; they invariably appeal to the mass audience.
Spanish painting. Despite the fact that the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries. characterized by the decline of the country, the brilliant flowering of painting dates back to this time. El Greco (Domenico Theotocopouli, 1541-1614) occupies a special place in it. This artist, Greek by origin, originally from Crete, settled in Spain (in Toledo), where he became known under the name El Greco. His paintings are distinguished by extreme expressiveness and emotional richness of images. The artist achieves this with a unique technique: the figures are deliberately deformed, elongated, the oval contours of the faces and gestures are stylized. The source of El Greco’s creativity is reality, but a transformed reality: the foreground and background, the earth and sky seem to transform into one another, everything is illuminated by bizarre flashes of light (as, for example, in his famous landscape “Toledo in a Thunderstorm”). In “The Funeral of Count Orgaz” there are many portraits of Toledo hidalgos, whose faces reflect their inner world. Forgotten after his death, El Greco was appreciated only at the beginning of the 20th century.
The most important artist of Spain in the 17th century. is Diego Velazquez de Silva (1599-1660). In the early period of his work, Velazquez created a number of paintings in his hometown of Seville, the subject of which was everyday scenes - “Breakfast”, “Water Seller”, “The Old Cook”, etc. Their characters - people from the people - are filled with self-esteem. Later, for 36 years until his death, Velazquez was the court painter of Philip IV. He had to portray the king, members of his family, courtiers, and jesters again and again. But the artist, who increasingly improved his skills, with rare insight managed to achieve not just an external resemblance:
Through the ceremonial appearance in the portraits, the spiritual appearance of these people emerges - the weakness and insignificance of Philip IV, the arrogance and lust for power of Olivares. A deep perception of life, the remarkable art of composition and conveyance of the air environment are visible in his later paintings “Las Meninas” (Maids of Honor) and “The Spinner”. The movements of women busy with work, free and relaxed, are sharply different from the prim stiffness of the characters in “Las Menin”. The work of Velázquez is of great importance not only for Spanish, but for all world art.
Golden Age for Spain
Note 1
After the conquest of America, a golden age begins for Spain. The country turned into the strongest maritime power in Europe. The entire Iberian Peninsula, except Portugal, came under the rule of the Spanish monarch. The creation of the strongest army in the world allowed the country to continue expanding its territories on the European continent.
In 1504 Spain subjugated Naples. The daughter and heiress of Ferdinand and Isabella, Juana, strengthened the position of the Spanish throne by becoming related to the Austrian Habsburg dynasty. Her son Charles conquered Oran in 1509 and Navarre in 1512. In 1519, Charles was proclaimed Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire under the name of Charles V. The Cortes supplied the emperor with money to wage war in Africa and Mexico, against France and Germany.
Dissatisfaction with Charles' policies led to his resignation in 1556. By this time, Spain retained power in Europe only over the Netherlands, Milan, Naples, Sardinia, Sicily and Franche-Comté. The country turned into a reactionary center of Catholic Church politics. The Inquisition was carried out, any desire for freedom was suppressed.
More and more arable land was transferred to the church, emptying or being converted into pastures. Trade was in the hands of foreigners. The colonial possessions of the Spanish Empire reached their peak by 1580 after the enslavement of South and Central America. Absolutism was established in the country.
The beginning of the decline of Spain
The income from the colonization of the American colonies did not bring development to the economic life of the country. The flow of gold from the New World is directed to achieve political goals. The Spanish crown spares no expense to preserve the power of the Habsburg dynasty in European life and to restore the power of the Catholic Church. Spain begins to lag behind other European countries, especially from the Protestant states of the North-West region.
In the middle of the 16th century there was a decline in the country's economy. Reasons for economic regression:
- increasing the tax burden;
- waging constant wars;
- price revolution.
Charles's heir, Philip II, moves the capital of the state to Madrid (it was in Toledo). A new period in the history of the country begins. Spanish absolutism turned out to be closely connected with the Catholic Inquisition. His actions led to the decline of the Spanish army and the state itself:
- in 1571 power over Tunisia was lost;
- the actions of the Duke of Alba in the Netherlands led to a revolution that the Spanish crown could not suppress;
- the war with England for its return from Protestantism to Catholicism ended with the death of the “invincible armada”;
- Intervention in the religious wars in France led to the strengthening of the French monarchy and the weakening of the Spanish one.
17th century in the history of Spain
The death of Philip II brought various noble factions to power.
- The first of them was headed by the Duke of Lerma (practically ruled the country under Philip III). He turned the richest state in Europe (in 1607) into bankruptcy. The expenses for the army were enormous, most of the treasury was stolen by senior officials and Lerma himself. The eviction of the Moriscos caused a decline in trade and the desolation of cities.
- The second group was led by the Duke of Olivares (acted under Philip IV). Spanish intervention in religious