The publishing house "Aletheia" published novelties in the series "New Byzantine Library. Research. All books in the "New Byzantine Library. Research" series The libraries of the book depository in Byzantium were called

Target

To acquaint children with the history of the Byzantine Empire, from which the Russians were baptized in Orthodox faith, icons and sacred books.

Equipment

For students: pencils and sketchbooks.

The librarian talks about the Byzantine libraries, the children draw in the albums "Byzantine" fortresses, palaces, book depositories according to their own ideas.

Information for the teacher

In 660 B.C. a noble navigator and a skilled commander Byzant founded a city on the European coast of the Bosporus and named it after himself - Byzantium. But in 325 AD. Emperor Constantine decided to move the capital of the empire from Rome to the border of Europe and Asia. His choice fell on the city of Byzantium. In its place, the "city of Constantine" - Constantinople - arose. Famous architects, sculptors, masons, carpenters were brought to build the city. To decorate the new capital, they robbed the old one - they took it out of Rome great amount statues. Almost all major cities of the empire were forced to give away their beautiful sculptures. In 395, the Roman emperor Theodosius the Great divided the empire between his sons - Honorius received the West and Rome, Arcadius - the East and Constantinople, which became the capital of Byzantium. During the reign of Emperor Justinian, the capital was decorated with new palaces, harbors, baths, the Grand Palace was rebuilt. By his order, the temple of Hagia Sophia was built - the greatest creation of Byzantine architecture of the 6th century. “This temple presented a wonderful sight - for those who looked at it, it seemed exceptional, for those who heard about it, it was absolutely incredible. In height, it rises as if to the sky, and, like a ship on the high waves of the sea, it stands out among other buildings, as if leaning over the rest of the city, decorating it and, as an integral part of it, is itself decorated with it. He was famous for his unspeakable beauty.

Constantinople was the center political power, education and culture. The court of the emperor, state institutions, the patriarchal office were here, the best scientists, writers, artists, jewelers were here. Education was quite well established - not only primary, elementary, but also higher education. The university taught Greek and Latin grammar, Greek and Latin eloquence, law and philosophy. The opening of the university took place in 425 by decree of Theodosius II. Naturally, the book was of paramount importance in the cultural life of the empire. Having officially recognized Christianity, Emperor Constantine himself ordered the production of 50 copies of the Bible. Books and secular content were needed. The development of mathematics, astronomy, alchemy and other sciences demanded attention. A significant number of the most educated people who had previously lived in Rome moved to the new capital. Naturally, when they moved, they took their libraries with them.

Along with the emergence of Constantinople, masterful writing and scriptoriums arose. It was at this time that the codex came to replace the scroll. This transition to a new form of handwritten book was reflected in the methods of work of scribes. Ancient calligraphers did not use tables, they worked with papyrus on their knees, and for convenience they put a small bench under their feet. Scriptoria of various monasteries, educational institutions, state and private master letters from century to century accumulated book treasures, preserved and increased spiritual wealth, distributing books not only in the capital, but throughout the empire, and in neighboring states. D.S. Likhachev wrote: “The Byzantine handwritten book, in terms of the perfection of its artistic design, the beauty of the letters in the text, the elegance of the binding, can be considered one of the remarkable phenomena of medieval art.” A remarkable feature of the Constantinopolitan manuscripts is the harmonic connection between image, decoration and text. The color of parchment, the shade of iron ink, the colors of miniatures, the brilliance of gold - everything was taken into account by the masters.

It is characteristic that the state scriptorium and the imperial library have become the central scientific institutions of the capital over the centuries. The two establishments were closely related. The scriptorium worked to replenish the library's funds, while the library itself kept samples for copying and translation. Note that the book business in Constantinople knew periods of ups and downs, and could not do without the mass destruction of libraries and book treasures. According to legend, Emperor Leo III burned down the building of the high school along with teachers and books. It happened in 726.

As for the imperial library, there is no exact data on its location. Perhaps the books were in the chambers of the emperor, in the palace storerooms, in temples. One of the documents indicates that the main part was located in a stone loggia not far from the entrance to the palace. Along the walls of the loggia there were stone benches, and slabs laid on low stands served as tables; tables were next to each other. Books were located in cabinets, in special boxes, in vessels. The sovereign's chambers, the walls of which were covered with mosaics and frescoes, were not forced to furnish - wardrobes were arranged in wall niches.

There were both public and patriarchal libraries in Constantinople, but the Studian Monastery rightfully occupied the primacy in terms of the number of books produced, their high quality, and cultural influence on many countries. It was founded in the 5th century. Roman patrician Roman Studio. All manuscripts of the Studion Monastery are parchment; writing material of very high quality was produced in the monastery. Next to the large scriptorium was a library in which the monks were supposed to spend holidays. Abbot of the monastery Theodore the Studite (759-826), one of the most educated people of his time, introduced a strict charter, which, among other instructions, also indicates the rules of conduct for a scribe and the duties of a bookkeeper.

? What rules were written in the charter, in your opinion?

“You should know that on those days when we are free from bodily affairs, the book keeper hits a tree (a beat, a hanging board) once, and the brethren gather in the book ward, and each takes a book and reads until evening. Before riveting, one day the book clerk strikes at the lamproom again, and everyone comes and returns the books according to the record.

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It is important for us that the charter of this monastery had a great influence on our librarianship. In 1062, the abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Theodosius sent his representative to the Studion Monastery in order to write off the charter. And this charter successfully spread throughout the Russian monasteries.

DURING THE MIDDLE AGES

1. Libraries of Byzantium

Less abrupt transition from ancient world By the Middle Ages, it was in Byzantium, a state with a thousand-year history (IV-XV centuries), formed during the collapse of the Roman Empire in its eastern part (the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, the southeastern Mediterranean). The culture of Byzantium was a synthesis of ancient, eastern and early Christian cultures. The Christian rulers of Byzantium were tolerant of pagan culture and did not completely abandon the legacy of antiquity. Greek language was the state and most common language of the empire, so the works of the great Greeks of antiquity were publicly available, enjoyed respect and were the basis of education. All this contributed to the creation of favorable conditions for the development of culture.

Literacy was widespread throughout the empire. There were numerous primary and secondary schools. Since the 4th century, universities have opened, not only in the capital, but also in the provinces.

Libraries played an important role in the intellectual life of Byzantium. One of the most famous was the imperial library, created in the 4th century by Emperor Constantine I the Great. His descendants continued to take care of the library, and by the end of the 5th century it was a significant collection of about 120 thousand books. Among the book rarities were lists of Homer's poems written in gold letters on snakeskin. Scholars were invited to rewrite books and maintain the library collections at a high level. This state of affairs corresponded to the ancient tradition.

In the middle of the 4th century, the son of Constantine the Great, Constantius II, founded the state scriptorium in the capital. “ Scriptor" in Latin means " scribe", and the word itself" scriptorium” means a workshop for creating handwritten books. The emperor appointed the head of the scriptorium - a special official - the archon, under whose supervision there were many calligraphers.

Constantius II was the creator of the Constantinople Public Library, the first public library of the Middle Ages. It was famous for its rich funds and, according to some sources, existed until the fall of the Byzantine Empire.

Along with the imperial and public libraries there were libraries of religious institutions, educational institutions and individuals.

There were book collections in all churches and monasteries. We have received information about the library of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, the libraries of Studian and Athos monasteries. The patriarchal library has existed since at least the 7th century. Its fund was predominantly religious in nature, but in addition to books consecrated by the church, there were also works of “heretical” content. They were kept in special boxes, separate from the works of orthodox authors. It is known that in some metropolitan monasteries the issuance of books to the laity was practiced.

Unlike Western Europe in Byzantium, where the monarchy was strong, the church did not have a monopoly on education. Numerous secular educational institutions had their own libraries, since teaching was inextricably linked with the book. But from all these libraries, the library of the University of Constantinople, created at the beginning of the 5th century, stands out. It was in charge of a special minister, who was called " bibliophile"  .

Byzantium was also famous for its private book collections. Personal libraries were available not only to emperors, nobles and church hierarchs, but also to scientists, professors, and teachers. The richest book lovers often, when ordering a book from a copyist, specifically stipulated the elements of its design. The main attention was paid to ornamentation and binding, for the manufacture of which ivory, gold, enamel and precious stones were used.

Among the Byzantine book collectors, the first attempt of a bibliographic description of the collection was made in the Middle Ages. One of the most educated Byzantines of the 9th century, Patriarch Photius, wrote an essay “ Myriobiblion” which means “ thousand books". It was a description of more than 300 books - ancient and Christian. The writer briefly outlined the content of the book and provided information about the author. Sometimes Photius did not confine himself to a simple retelling and included his own reflections and critical notes in the annotation.

Little is known about the structure of Byzantine libraries. In the early Middle Ages, following the ancient tradition, the library was placed in the open porticos of buildings, and even the owners of private collections, following the fashion, willingly flaunted their book wealth. Gradually, this tradition of open storage of books began to be replaced by the practice of keeping them hidden from readers. These changes were caused by circumstances of a different nature. First, in the Middle Ages, the cost of books increased significantly. Secondly, the influence of Christianity, which was originally a persecuted and persecuted religion, had an effect, and therefore religious books were kept in hidden, sheltered places - chests and chests. In large libraries, books were provided with a cipher and arranged in accordance with it. On some of the manuscripts that have come down to us, marks have been preserved indicating the cabinet (or shelf) and the place of the book on the shelf.

The fate of Byzantine libraries is unenviable. Irreparable damage was caused to them by the crusaders who invaded the territory of the empire. At the beginning of the 13th century, they captured Constantinople by storm and sacked the city. There is evidence that the crusaders mercilessly destroyed books and carried writing materials on spears through the whole city. Entire transports loaded with the spoils of war of the crusaders - richly decorated Byzantine manuscripts - went to Western Europe.

In the second half of the 14th century, Constantinople was restored and again became the capital of the empire. Libraries were rebuilt along with the destroyed city, but this peace was short-lived. In the middle of the 15th century, the Byzantine Empire fell under the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks, and again this was accompanied by destruction, burning and plunder of book depositories. Historians have written about ships carrying books, about carts loaded with manuscripts, about how the gold and silver that adorned the bindings were mercilessly torn off and sold.

The significance of Constantinople for Western civilization is great. The activities of the Byzantine bibliophiles, the work of the scriptoriums, the very fact of the existence of many libraries helped to preserve a significant part of the heritage of Hellas, which was lost to the West at that time.

2. Libraries of the Arab Caliphate

During the Middle Ages, Constantinople was not the only center of culture in the Eastern Mediterranean. At the beginning of the 7th century, the era of Islam began. Islam covered most of the Arab world - from Persia to Morocco, and over 800 years of existence, the Arab Caliphate became a powerful power.

The formation of the Arabic literary language, the improvement of written culture, the great reverence and respect for knowledge in general and for the book in particular were characteristic of this region.

Arab culture reached its peak in the 7th-9th centuries. Arab scientists have achieved exceptional success in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, geography, and history. In mathematics, many terms of Arabic origin are still preserved - for example, the words “algebra”, “algorithm”, “digit” and others. The Arabs introduced numbers that were so convenient that they spread all over the world, and we still use them today. prospered fiction. No wonder today we read the poems of Saadi, Omar Khayyam, Rudaki and Hafiz.

Arab science and culture largely relied on the ancient heritage. While in medieval Europe the works of ancient scientists perished due to religious wars, the great Greeks – Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Archimedes, Ptolemy – were translated in the Arab Caliphate. Many of these works have come down to us precisely because they were translated into Arabic during the Middle Ages.

In the 8th-9th centuries, the caliphate became the world center for paper production. Paper was very convenient and, compared to parchment, a cheap material. The development of the paper industry in Samarkand, Cairo, Damascus and other Arab cities created the conditions for an unprecedented flourishing of book publishing. Only in one Spanish city of Cordoba, 16-18 thousand books were produced annually. In the city of Tripoli, where about 20 thousand inhabitants lived, almost half of the population was employed in paper mills or scriptoria. Some scriptoria in Tripoli had up to 180 scribes. At the end of the 10th century, there were 100 booksellers in Baghdad alone.

Naturally, with such an abundance of scriptoria and bookstores, the country also had an extensive network of libraries.

The libraries of the rulers-caliphs and their dignitaries were especially distinguished by their wealth. All the most significant rulers of Baghdad, Cairo, Cordoba, Damascus were book lovers.

The founder of the dynasty and the first caliph of the Umayyads, Muawiyah I (?-680), laid the foundations for one of the first Arab palace libraries. In Damascus he founded house of wisdom” (“Bayt al-hikma”) is an institution that is both a library and a state repository of archival documents. Since 689, the archive and the library began to exist separately. The basis of the library of Muawiyah I (as well as most of the Arab libraries) was Koranic literature, but there was also a rich collection of books on medicine, philosophy, astrology, mathematics, and history. After the transfer of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, the library was also transferred to the new capital.

Arab historians write that the grandson of Muawiyah I, Khalid ibn-Yazid ibn-Muawiyah, allowed educated Muslims to use the library and copy the necessary books from its collection. Thus, the library from the palace gradually turned into a public one.

The founder of the famous Baghdad palace library was the no less famous caliph Harun al-Rashid (766-809), whose image is captured in fairy tales “ Thousand and One Nights". He replenished it throughout his life. Many manuscripts were received from Byzantium and other countries as tribute or gifts. The son of Harun, Caliph Al-Mamun, significantly expanded this book collection. The library stock consisted of hundreds of books. It was headed by three Persian scientists. Al-Mamun turned the closed palace library into a public one, allowing access to it not only for famous scientists, but also for any educated readers.

Caliph Al-Hakim II (961-977), who ruled in Cordoba, united the three palace libraries that existed before him. The fund of the joint library was 400 thousand volumes. The volume of the catalog of this book collection, containing the titles of the books and the names of the authors, was 44 notebooks of 90 sheets each.

Al-Hakim II had agents who conducted bibliographic searches for books all over the world, informing the caliph about all the novelties and rarities. The replenishment of the library fund in Cordoba itself was carried out by a large staff of scribes, bookbinders, and illustrators. The library had departments divided into sections. The library staff included a cataloging librarian.

Imitating the rulers, the Arab aristocrats made up rich private libraries. The library of the vizier ibn Abbad, who was obsessed with the love of books, is known. He gathered around him the best representatives of the art of the word, corresponded with famous writers and scientists. His library consisted of 117 thousand books. The library catalog consisted of 10 volumes. As a statesman and warrior, ibn Abbad traveled a lot and was accompanied by a library throughout his campaigns. Camels in a book caravan carried books in alphabetical order, so that librarians - caravaners could always quickly and easily find the desired manuscript.

Bibliophilia in the Arab Caliphate was considered a manifestation of good taste not only among aristocrats. There were collectors of books and among people of a simple class and a small income. For example, the teacher ibn Khazi had an excellent, carefully selected collection that was widely known. The testament of the Arabic translator ibn Tibbon to his son has been preserved: “I have amassed a large library. Keep her ok. Prepare lists of books for each cabinet and place each book in the proper cabinet. Cover books with beautiful curtains, protect them from water from the ceiling, from mice, from any harm, for they–your best treasure."

In the 9th century to replace " Houses of wisdom”, in which library functions were combined with archival ones, began to come“ houses of science” (“Dar al-ilm”), within the walls of which reading was closely connected with learning. During this period in major cities The Arab Caliphate opens higher educational institutions - madrasahs. Some of them eventually became universities, where, along with theology, the exact and natural sciences, philosophy, and medicine were taught. The first institution of this type was the library of the University of Baghdad (993), a major scientific and religious center. But perhaps the most famous is the library “ houses of science” in Tripoli. The literature gives a truly astronomical figure characterizing the size of the book fund of this library - 3 million volumes! At the same time, only the Koran had 50 thousand copies and 80 thousand copies of commentaries to it. The library staff consisted of 180 employees. It is surprising that such a large library lasted only 30 years and died from a fire during the invasion of the Crusaders.

Educational and pedagogical work was a distinctive feature of libraries of this type. For the first time in the history of librarianship, they became centers for the dissemination of various ideas and teachings. In Europe, such libraries appeared much later.

In the Arab Caliphate, there were also so-called “ attached libraries”: they were created at any institutions - mosques, mausoleums, hospitals. The library at the An-Nuri mosque, the library of Mustansiriya are known. The collections of affiliated libraries were usually profiled. The profile depended on the specialization of the institution to which it was affiliated.

Linked Libraries is a prototype of special libraries. Some of them, developing and expanding, gradually acquired independence. Some of the affiliated libraries, located in the capitals of the emirates, eventually turned into national special libraries.

In addition to libraries typical of all medieval states (palace, personal, educational and scientific institutions), a specific type of library, the waqf library, became widespread in the Arab Caliphate. Waqf is a special form of feudal property, in which the library was not the private property of the sovereign or feudal lord, but was located in “ perpetual use” of the Islamic community. The main feature of waqf libraries was their public accessibility. The social and charitable nature of waqf libraries required the maximum circulation of books among readers, therefore, not only eminent citizens and scientists, but everyone who wished to use the library funds. Moreover, in many libraries, regular readers, especially visitors and poor people, not only had books at their disposal, but were also provided with stationery and paper, even found accommodation and material support with the assistance of library workers.

Interior of a medieval Arabic library

there were no fundamental restrictions on the transfer to the library and storage of certain books for ideological, religious, censorship reasons, therefore, the most diverse literature in all fields of knowledge was presented in the funds. Although librarians were inspired by religious zeal, it did not limit their love of learning. Therefore, the funds of waqf libraries contained, in addition to the Koran and Koranic literature, fiction, poetry, books on medicine, law, astronomy, philosophy, mathematics, magic, and alchemy. In their liberalism, Arab librarians were far more tolerant of heretical opinions than their Christian counterparts and contemporaries. Although individual reactionary theologians and zealous officials sometimes removed from the collections works that were odious from their point of view, such “purges” were in the nature of local outbreaks.

Literature was transferred to waqf libraries according to a special legal procedure, which provided for the mandatory compilation of a list of transferred books. This list served as both a legal document and a catalogue.

The funds were obviously organized according to subject matter, and in the largest libraries they were arranged according to branches of knowledge.

The working hours of the waqf library were different: some libraries worked daily, others - 1-2 days a week. But for all libraries, a permanent mode of operation was established: obligatory days and hours for serving readers.

Library books were used not only locally, but also at home. A curious testimony of the Arab scholar-encyclopedist Yakut al-Hamawi has been preserved that the rules for lending books were so liberal that in one library in Madrid he was allowed to take home 200 volumes at a time.

The staff of libraries, even the largest ones, was small - 3-6 people. A trustee (often the founder of the waqf), a custodian (librarian), an assistant librarian and several servants were usually appointed. In large libraries of the 9th-12th centuries, well-educated writers and scientists were, as a rule, managers; from the 13th century, libraries were managed almost exclusively by theologians. The duties of the keeper of the library, his assistant and servants were to keep the books in order and give them to the readers. Questions of financing the library, buying and ordering new books, registering new acquisitions and maintaining a catalog, hiring and dismissing employees - all this was the prerogative of the manager of the waqf.

The study of the history of Arabic libraries provides rich material that testifies to the development of library science. There are numerous references to library catalogs. In some cases, catalogs were replaced by lists of books placed directly in the fund. The bibliography was known in such forms as lists of works of individual authors in works of a historical and biographical nature, thematic lists in dictionaries. The literature in the fund and the description of books in catalogs and book lists were usually arranged according to the thematic principle. This is confirmed, for example, by the words of Avicenna, who wrote about one of the libraries in Samarkand: “I entered a house with many rooms, in each room there were chests of books stacked one on top of the other. In one room were Arabic and poetic books, in the other on jurisprudence. Each room has one of the sciences. I read the list of ancient authors and asked what I needed...”

Thus, the level of library practice in the Arab Caliphate was very high for the Middle Ages. Attention is drawn to the availability of Arabic libraries, especially those belonging to waqfs. Arab librarians have accumulated rich professional traditions.

Unfortunately, the Islamic libraries suffered the same fate as the libraries of the Mediterranean. They died not only as a result of numerous wars, frequent fires, but also due to the fact that from the 12th century a decrease in interest in knowledge began. But the greatest damage to Arab libraries was caused by the campaigns of Christian crusaders in the 11th-13th centuries. Nevertheless, the Muslim world, like Byzantium, was the forerunner of the Renaissance and revived the culture of Europe in the late Middle Ages.

3. European Libraries in the Middle Ages

We have even more meager information about medieval libraries in Europe than about ancient book collections.

Europe in the Middle Ages was not distinguished by a high level of librarianship. Even what was accumulated in the previous era was lost. Two or three centuries after the fall of Rome, in most provincial towns, where there used to be many books, bookshops and libraries, not a single secular manuscript remained.

From various sources it is known that for several centuries medieval libraries were a very miserable phenomenon, yielding to their Greco-Roman predecessors. They were very modest collections of jealously guarded manuscripts. However, had these islands of knowledge and writing not survived, the history of Western civilization might have been very different.

3.1 Monastic libraries in medieval Europe

The centers of book culture in the early Middle Ages were monasteries. In different states, the spread of Christianity and the creation of monasteries took place in different time, but in general across Europe in the 5th-6th centuries appeared, and in the 9th-10th centuries monasteries, churches, monastic schools and libraries with them became widespread. At this time there was even a saying: A monastery without a library is like a camp without weapons.". The famous philosopher and theologian Thomas Aquinas wrote: The real treasury of the monastery–a library, without it it is like a kitchen without a boiler, a table without food, a well without water, a river without fish, a cloak without other clothes, a garden without flowers, a purse without money, a vine without grapes, a court without sentries ... "

One of the first monasteries in Europe was the Vivarium. It owes its creation to the greatest cultural figure of the medieval West - Cassiodorus the Senator (487-578). A native of a noble Roman family, writer, philosopher, he was secretary and adviser to the king of Italy, then became the minister of the court, consul, governor. Cassiodorus dreamed of creating a mighty Italo-Gothic state, nurtured the idea of organizing the first Christian university in Rome. It was impossible to realize these plans, and, apparently, realizing this, Cassiodorus left public service and founded in 550 in southern Italy the Vivarium, which means in Latin “ Shelter of Thought”.

It was a genuine, although not typical for Europe in the middle of the VI century, the center of culture. It was in the Vivarium that Cassiodorus wanted to preserve for posterity those literary and scientific values of the ancient world that had not yet died. He organized a school for young men in the monastery with a traditionally antique set of subjects: grammar, rhetoric, logic, music, mathematics, cosmography. A library and a scriptorium were created. The vivarium was a place not only for storing and copying texts, but also for fruitful literary work in editing, proofreading, translating texts, and even creating original works.

Cassiodorus took care of the high quality of copying books, a clear order in the scriptorium and library. For this he created a special A Guide to the Study of Divine and Secular Literature”(in some translations the title of the book sounds like “Introduction to Spiritual and Worldly Reading”). The two-volume work of Cassiodorus is considered one of the first major aids in the formation of the library's collections; it formulates some rules for managing the library and the scriptorium. This book, among other things, contained extensive information about literature, that is, it was a kind of bibliographic guide. Later researchers using this “Manuals...” were able to establish the repertoire of Vivarium's books. These were theological and legal treatises, works of Christian writers, ancient books on cosmography, medicine, and philosophy.

Cassiodorus lived for 100 years, of which 50 he dedicated to the Vivarium. The vivarium, together with the library and the scriptorium, did not outlive its organizer for long - it ceased to exist at the end of the 6th - beginning of the 7th century.

The activities of Cassiodorus and the rich library of the Vivarium were unique in early medieval Europe. Usually monastic libraries were so small that their entire collection fit in one chest. The few books they contained were of an exclusively religious nature: they were copies of biblical texts, the writings of the church fathers, and breviaries necessary for church rituals.

Monastery scriptorium.

Portrait of a scribe. France.XYV.

The monastic scriptoria, which were an integral part of the library, diligently copied books. Excellent calligraphers, experienced artists, skilful bookbinders have created many magnificent monuments of book art. Rewriting church books was equated with an apostolic feat, and the names of some scribes after their death were surrounded by a legendary halo. Not every monk was allowed to undertake such a charitable work. Not only young literate monks were engaged in copying books, but also respectable members of monastic orders, often even the abbots themselves.

Manuscripts coming from the scriptorium made up the bulk of the new arrivals of the monastery book depositories. Sometimes, however, there were other sources of recruitment. So, English and Irish monks specially traveled to the continent for books for monastic libraries. The funds were replenished with donations. Noble parishioners brought books as a gift with the condition that they be remembered in prayers for the repose of the soul. Children from noble and wealthy families brought books with them, sent to study at monastic schools. Donated books and feudal lords who decided to take the veil as monks, in the hope of gaining "heavenly peace"

The bulk of the collections were usually sacred scriptures, the lives of saints, the writings of the church fathers, and liturgical literature. Less often in the monastic libraries there were books by ancient authors. Ancient texts, as a rule, were inaccessible even to the majority of monks. Umberto Eco in the novel " Rosa's name”not only recreates a remarkable picture of the life and structure of the medieval monastery library, he also tells that the storage of the works of Aristotle in the library fund was surrounded by a dark secret, carefully guarded by the librarian.

The hierarchs of the Catholic Church, who took upon themselves the right of severe regulation and strict censorship, carefully monitored that pagan and heretical writings did not penetrate the walls of the monasteries. Back in 325, the infamous “ Index...” (“Index librorum prohibitorum Document

« Librarycase" The main content of the course Topic 1. Story books and libraries. (2 hours) Writing and book case in Rus' ... .) The spread of printing in Rus'. Topic 2 Storylibraryaffairs abroad. (2 hours) The birth of libraries...

A less abrupt transition from the ancient world to the Middle Ages was in Byzantium, a state with a thousand-year history (IV-XV centuries), formed during the collapse of the Roman Empire in its eastern part (the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, the southeastern Mediterranean). The culture of Byzantium was a synthesis of ancient, eastern and early Christian cultures. The Christian rulers of Byzantium were tolerant of pagan culture and did not completely abandon the legacy of antiquity. The Greek language was the state and the most common language of the empire, so the works of the great Greeks of antiquity were publicly available, respected and were the basis of education. All this contributed to the creation of favorable conditions for the development of culture.

Literacy was widespread throughout the empire. There were numerous primary and secondary schools. Since the 4th century, universities have opened, not only in the capital, but also in the provinces.

Along with the imperial and public libraries, there were libraries of religious institutions, educational institutions and individuals.

This work is devoted to a complex, little-studied and underestimated era: the period of the reign of Emperor Theodosius II (401-450), the longest in the history of Byzantium. At that time, the empire was going through contradictory processes: the decline and instability in the West corresponded to the rise and flourishing in the East, in which historians, paradoxically, for a long time did not see any merit of the reigning emperor. The work attempts to look at the results of his reign in a new way, taking into account modern research. The wife of Theodosius II, Empress Athenaida-Eudokia (c. 405-460) - the daughter of an Athenian professor, a pagan who became a Christian, a ruler, a poetess and an ascetic - is one of the symbolic figures of this era. Her name is surrounded by legends, not all of which are reliable, but their occurrence is significant in itself and has its own reasons, which the author seeks to understand. The book is intended both for specialists in the history and literature of this period, and for a wide range of those interested in the history of late antiquity and Byzantium.

Senina Tatyana Anatolyevna 2018

Hellenism in 9th century Byzantium

Culturology , Story

The book is devoted to Byzantine Hellenism of the 9th century. In Byzantium, interest in ancient culture sharply increased. At the origins of this revival was the famous iconoclast John the Grammarian, and his nephew Leo the Philosopher brought up a circle of students and followers, thanks to whom a collection of manuscripts of Plato and Neoplatonists was created. The Hellenistic humanism of this era, approaching Platonism and secularism, is most clearly reflected in the work of Leo the Philosopher and his student Leo Chirosfact. The Byzantine Hellenists were fascinated by ancient culture, balancing on the edge beyond which, from the point of view of a pious Christian, "impiety" began. The secular poetry of the nun Cassia, in whose gnomic epigrams sound Hellenistic motifs, is an example of a more moderate Hellenism. Patriarch Photius of Constantinople, despite his keen interest in ancient culture, looked at it from strictly Orthodox positions and played a negative role in spreading the ideal of enlightened Hellenism. Particularly interesting is the worldview of Leo Chirosfact, in whose writings there are not only neoplatonic, but also iconoclastic motifs. The work of Hirosfact is a kind of synthesis of Hellenism of the 9th century. and testifies to the spread of Platonism and the survival of iconoclastic ideas among the educated Byzantines of that era.

Kyzlasova Irina 2018

Academician Nikodim Pavlovich Kondakov. Searches and accomplishments

Biographies and memoirs

This collection is devoted to the scientific work of the great scientist, one of the main creators of the new discipline "Byzantine and Old Russian art" N.P. Kondakov (1844-1925), as well as a number of his colleagues. It includes both newly written essays and materials previously published in various publications, but specially revised again. The texts are based on documents stored in the archives of different cities: these are epistolary complexes important for the history of science and especially valuable fragments from the diary of N.P. Kondakov (including pages full of deep tragedy about his forced emigration from Odessa in early 1920, which in many respects complement the famous book "Mouths of the Bunins"). The main milestones in the life of N.P. Kondakov and a complete bibliography of his works are given. The book is intended both for specialists and for all those interested in the history of Russian Byzantine studies.

Krivov Mikhail Vasilievich 2018

Story

The book by a famous Russian researcher gives a detailed description of the Byzantine and Arab societies in the era of the emergence of Islam, shows the history of military-political relations between Byzantium and the Arab Caliphate in the 7th-8th centuries. and mutual cultural influences up to the 11th century. The book was written on the basis of medieval Greek (Theophanes, Nikifor, etc.), Arabic (Balazuri, Tabari, etc.), Armenian (Sebeos, Ghevond, etc.), Latin and Syrian sources, used partly in the originals, partly in translations.

Kuchma Vladimir 2017

Military organization of the Byzantine Empire

Military, weapons, special services , Story

The book is the first thematic collection of articles in Russian historiography devoted to the problems of the military organization of the Byzantine Empire. The main sources of research are the monuments of the Byzantine military-scientific literature, based on centuries-old ancient tradition. The principles of military theory are considered inextricably linked with combat practice, against the general background of the socio-economic, political and state-legal development of the Empire. For specialist historians and a wide range of readers interested in the history of wars and military art.

Litavrin G. G. 2017

Byzantium, Bulgaria, Ancient Rus' (IX - early XII century)

Story

The book of the outstanding Russian Byzantinist G.G. Litavrin tells about the formation of Ancient Rus' as a powerful cultural power and the influence of Byzantium and Bulgaria on this process. As the author himself writes, "the main goal of this book is not to trace the very process and circumstances of the baptism of Russia, but to show how, despite all the vicissitudes and difficulties in relations with the Byzantine Empire, the adoption of Christianity by Russia from it became inevitable... The whole course of the formation and development of the Old Russian state and its very geopolitical position determined the historical pattern that made Byzantium the "godmother" of Ancient Russia..."

Litavrin G. G. 2017

Byzantium and Slavs

Story , Ethnography

There are four sections in the collection of the outstanding Byzantine scientist, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences G.G. Litavrin. The first contains articles on the most debatable problems of the socio-economic history of Byzantium (on small and large land ownership and the rights of its inheritance, on the tax system of the empire, the conditions for handicraft and trade activities in the Byzantine city, and on the relations with Byzantium that played a fatal role in the history of Byzantium Latins and Ottomans). The second section is devoted to the history of the First and Second Bulgarian kingdoms. Social problems also prevail here, but special attention is paid to the relations of the Slavs with the Proto-Bulgarians and Byzantium. The third section includes articles on Russian-Byzantine relations in the 9th–12th centuries. and, finally, the fourth reveals a number of controversial or little-known episodes from the history of relations between the ancient Slavs and the Avars and the Byzantine Empire in the 7th-9th centuries. The book will be of interest not only to specialists, but also to the widest range of readers.

Budanova Vera , Gorsky Anton Anatolievich , Ermolova Irina Evgenievna 2017

Great Migration of Nations. Ethnopolitical and social aspects

Ethnography , Story

The book is dedicated to a unique stage in world history - the Great Migration of Nations, when, in the conditions of the extinction of ancient civilization and the emergence of medieval civilization, the interaction of the barbarian world and the Roman Empire reached its most intense phase. The authors focus on the three leaders of the Great Migration - Germans, Huns and Slavs, their role in the European civilizational processes of the II-VII centuries, their transformation during migrations from tribal unions to the first state formations, the evolution of military, trade, diplomatic, cultural contacts, constituting the essence of the interaction and mutual influence of the two polar worlds - Barbaricum and Empire. The book is addressed not only to historians, archaeologists, ethnologists, linguists, but also to all readers interested in the history of Europe at the turn of Antiquity and the Middle Ages.

Vasilyk Vladimir Vladimirovich 2017

Church and empire in Byzantine ecclesiastical and poetic monuments

Story , Christianity

The book is dedicated to the reflection of life Universal Church and the Byzantine (Romaic) Empire in the Byzantine church-poetic, or hymnographic, monuments. For the first time in the monograph, the problem of historicism in Byzantine hymnography is posed. The book examines church poetic texts from the end of the 1st to the end of the 10th century. - the hymns of the Apocalypse, the Great Doxology, the hymn to the Trinity, the troparia of Auxentius, the kontakions of St. Roman the Melodist, canons of St. Andrew of Crete, John of Damascus, Cosmas of Maium, Joseph the Songwriter. Various aspects of the life of the Church and the Empire are explored, including martyrdom, dogmatic disputes, wars, rebellions, earthquakes, legal conflicts. On the basis of hymnographic monuments, in a new way, the book covers the revolt of Nika, the life of St. Roman the Melodist, wars with the Persians and Avars, ideas about society and culture, etc. A number of unpublished and untranslated monuments are published in the appendix.

Krivov Mikhail Vasilievich 2017

Byzantium and the Arabs in the Early Middle Ages

Story

The book of the famous Russian researcher gives a detailed description of the Byzantine and Arab societies in the era of the emergence of Islam, shows the history of military-political relations between Byzantium and the Arab Caliphate in the 7th-8th centuries. and mutual cultural influences up to the 11th century. The book was written on the basis of medieval Greek (Theophanes, Nikifor, etc.), Arabic (Balazuri, Tabari, etc.), Armenian (Sebeos, Ghevond, etc.), Latin and Syrian sources, used partly in the originals, partly in translations. For a wide range of readers.

2017

Story

2017

Byzantine essays. Proceedings of Russian scientists for the XXIII International Congress of Byzantines

Story

Since 1961, Byzantine essays have traditionally been published by Russian scholars for the International Congresses of Byzantine Studies. This issue has been prepared for the XXIII International Congress in Belgrade. It includes articles reflecting the results of the latest research by Russian scientists on the problems of the social, political, ethnic and cultural history of Byzantium, as well as problems of source studies and historiography. In accordance with the principle adopted in this series, most of the articles are profiled taking into account the main topics of the upcoming congress and are devoted to the history of the Byzantine civilization as a living organism that appears to be united in its development.

Krivov Mikhail Vasilievich 2017

Byzantine culture

Story

This publication is devoted to a subject that is relatively little covered in educational and popular science literature - Byzantine culture of the 4th-15th centuries. At the same time, the study of this subject is very relevant for our country, since the domestic culture after the baptism of Rus' developed primarily under the influence of the culture of Byzantium. The book shows the features of Byzantine philosophy and theology, legal and historical thought, hagiographic, fiction and other literature, scientific knowledge and the education system, architecture and art, as well as the life and customs of the population. Much attention is paid to the connections of Byzantine culture with the cultures of other peoples, especially Russian. The book is intended not only for students of higher educational institutions, but also for a wide range of readers.

Medvedev I.P. 2017

Legal culture of the Byzantine Empire

Story , Jurisprudence

The Byzantine Empire is a state that created a brilliant, advanced throughout the Middle Ages culture, the most important component of which was legal culture. In the book by I.P. Medvedev, the concept of Byzantinism is developed as a cultural system based on the principles of law, moreover, civilized, written law, which assumed high level legal thinking and general education. Controversial issues considered legal framework Byzantine statehood, certain stages in the development of Byzantine legislation and jurisprudence, the system of legal education, the history of Byzantine legal proceedings, notaries, etc. The book is based on materials previously published by the author in various publications, appropriately supplemented, revised and combined into a single system. Edition It is intended for a wide range of readers interested in the history of law.

Karpov Sergey 2017

History of the Empire of Trebizond

Story

The monograph of the prominent Russian Byzantinist and medievalist, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences S.P. Karpov for the first time in world historiography considers in a complex all aspects of the political, economic and cultural history of the Trebizond Empire (1204-1461). The Empire of Trebizond was the cradle of Pontic Hellenism, the last Byzantine stronghold, for many years - a link between the West and the East, the crossroads of world civilizations. The very survival of this state in the era of the Crusades, the Tatar-Mongol conquests, the rise of the powerful powers of the East (the Seljukids of Rum, the Ilkhans, Emir Timur, Ak-Kuyunlu, the Ottoman Sultanate, etc.) needs an explanation, which is offered by the author of the book. A prominent and ancient metropolis of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the Empire of Trebizond left a noticeable mark on the history of the Orthodox East, maintaining versatile ties with the Paleologian Byzantium, the principalities of Ancient Rus', the Crimea and Transcaucasia. From the end of the XIII century. Genoese and Venetian trading posts appeared on its territory, which played an important role in the economy of the Middle Ages. To study the topic, the author drew on a wide range of archival, manuscript and published sources in many European and Oriental languages. The book is intended for Byzantinists, Orientalists, Slavists, for students and post-graduate students of humanitarian universities, as well as for a wide range of readers interested in history.

Vasiliev Alexander Alexandrovich 2017

History of the Byzantine Empire. From the Beginning of the Crusades to the Fall of Constantinople

Story

In the scientific heritage of the outstanding Russian Byzantinist and Arabist A.A. Vasiliev, a special place is occupied by general works covering the entire history of Byzantium up to the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The following works of his were published in Russian in the first quarter of the 20th century in Petrograd - Petersburg - Leningrad: 1) Lectures on the history of Byzantium. Time before the Crusades (until 1081); 2) The history of Byzantium and the crusaders. The era of Komnenos (1081-1184) and Angels (1185-1204); 3) History of Byzantium. Latin rule in the East. The era of the Nicaean and Latin empires (1204-1261); 4) History of Byzantium. Fall of Byzantium. The era of the Palaiologians (1261-1453). After the emigration of A.A. Vasiliev, these works were repeatedly reprinted by him in foreign languages, with additions and changes, finding in the second American edition - History of the Byzantine Empire, 324-1453. Madison, 1952 - the quality of a comprehensive monographic study, one of the most important in world Byzantine studies. This determines the relevance of publishing the work in full in Russian at the present time. "History of the Byzantine Empire" by A.A. Vasiliev has two main qualities - brightness, picturesqueness, imagery of presentation, which allows each reader to be a living witness to the events described, to be fully and completely present in that infinitely distant and at the same time inconceivably close era, as well as scrupulous scientific accuracy , almost pedantry (but without scientific tediousness) in the characterization historical facts, events and processes. The increase in the number of comments and notes from edition to edition speaks of the serious attitude the author to his essay, about A.A. Vasilyev’s striving for an ever higher scientific ideal, about taking into account the latest achievements of Byzantine studies. All additions by A.A. Vasilyev are translated from English. All notes missing in the Russian text, bibliography and indexes are also taken from the second American edition. The new Russian edition is prefaced with an introductory article about the life and scientific path of A.A. Vasiliev. The text of the book has been re-edited. For the widest range of readers.

Description:
The Byzantine Library is a series of publishing houses Aletheia, which published books dedicated to the history of Byzantium. It published modern popular science and scientific books by modern Russian and foreign scientists dealing with the history of Byzantium, as well as translations of traditional Byzantine works.
There are 44 volumes of the series here.

Alfeev I. Life and teachings of St. Gregory the Theologian. (fb2)
Bezobrazov P., Lyubarsky Y. Two books about Mikhail Psellos - 2001. (djvu)
Bibikov M. Byzantine sources on history ancient Rus' and Caucasus - 2001. (djvu)
Bibikov M. historical literature Byzantium - 1998. (djvu)
Budanova V. Gorsky A. Ermolova I. The Great Migration of Peoples. (fb2)
Budanova V. Goths in the era of the Great Migration of Nations - 2001. (djvu)
Vasiliev A. History of the Byzantine Empire in 2 volumes. Vol. 1. (rtf)
Vasiliev A. History of the Byzantine Empire in 2 volumes. Vol. 2. (rtf)
Byzantine historians on the fall of Constantinople in 1453. - 2006. (djvu)
Byzantine essays. Proceedings of Russian scientists for the XXI International Congress of Byzantines - 2006. (djvu)
Dionysius the Areopagite. Maxim the Confessor. Works. Interpretations - 2002. (djvu)
Zanemonets A. John Eugenik and the Orthodox Resistance to the Union of Florence - 2008. (pdf)
Hegumen Hilarion (Alfeev). Reverend Simeon New Theologian and Orthodox Tradition - 2001. (doc)
Kazhdan A. Byzantine culture X-XII centuries - 2006. (djvu)
Kazhdan A. Two days from the life of Constantinople. (fb2)
Kazhdan A. History of Byzantine Literature (850-1000) - 2012. (djvu)
Karpov S. History of the Empire of Trebizond - 2007. (djvu)
Karpov S. Latin Romania - 200. (djvu)
Kekavmen - Tips and stories. 2nd ed. - 2003. (djvu)
Klimanov L. Byzantine reflections in sphragistics. (pdf)
Komnena A. Alexiada - 1996. (djvu)
Krivushin I. Early Byzantine Church Historiography - 1998. (djvu)
Kulakovsky Y. History of Byzantium, vol. 1. - 2003. (djvu)
Kulakovsky Y. History of Byzantium, vol. 2. - 1996. (djvu)
Kulakovsky Y. History of Byzantium, vol. 3 - 1996. (djvu)
Kuchma V. Military Organization of the Byzantine Empire - 2001. (pdf)
Lebedev A. Historical essays on the state of the Byzantine-Eastern Church - 1998. (djvu)
Lebedev A. History of the Councils of Constantinople in the 9th century. (fb2)
Medvedev I. Byzantine humanism of the XIV-XV centuries - 1997. (djvu)
Medvedev I. St. Petersburg Byzantine Studies - 2006. (djvu)
Medvedev I. Legal Culture of the Byzantine Empire - 2001. (djvu)
About strategy. Byzantine military treatise 6th century - 2007. (djvu)
Orosius P. History against the pagans. (rtf)
Easter Chronicle - 2004. (djvu)
Przhegorlinsky A. Byzantine church at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. - 2011. (pdf)
Theophan's successor. Biographies of Byzantine Kings - 2009. (djvu)
Prokhorov G. Rus' and Byzantium in the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. Articles - 2000. (djvu)
Rudakov A. Essays on Byzantine culture according to hagiography - 1997. (djvu)
Skrzhinskaya E.Ch. Rus', Italy and Byzantium in the Middle Ages. - 2000. (djvu)
Strategicon of Mauritius - 2004. (djvu)
Taft R. Byzantine Church Rite - 2000. (djvu)
Khvostova K. Byzantine civilization as a historical paradigm - 2009. (djvu)
Chichurov I.S. (ed.) Avtibwpov. To the 75th anniversary of Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Gennady Grigorievich Litavrin - 2003. (djvu)
Shukurov R. The Great Comneni and the East (1204-1461) - 2001. (pdf)