The table “Main events in the history of Ancient Rus' in the 9th – early 13th centuries” compiled by students based on materials from the textbook will probably look like this.
Main events in the history of Ancient Rus' in IX – beginning XIII century
Year | Internal political events | Foreign policy events |
Beginning of Rurik's reign in Novgorod | ||
Prince Oleg's campaign against Kyiv. Unification of the north (Novgorod) and south (Kyiv). Formation of the Old Russian State | ||
Campaigns of Prince Oleg to Constantinople (Constantinople). Signing a trade agreement beneficial for Rus' |
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Unsuccessful campaigns of Prince Igor against Constantinople |
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Prince Igor is killed by the rebel Drevlyans | ||
The campaign of Prince Svyatoslav against the Khazar Kaganate. The defeat and death of the Khazar Kaganate. Russian control over the Volga trade route |
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Embassy of Rus' in Constantinople. Baptism of Princess Olga. Political union of Rus' and Byzantium |
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Russian-Byzantine war. Death of Prince Svyatoslav |
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Adoption of Christianity in Rus' under Prince Vladimir | ||
Lyubech Congress of Princes. Legal formalization of political fragmentation | ||
The defeat of the Polovtsians by Prince Vladimir Monomakh |
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The assault and defeat of Kyiv by the united troops of the Russian princes and Polovtsian khans. Weakening of the all-Russian significance of Kyiv |
Lessons No. 14-15. Rus' between East and West.
During the lessons:
reveal the process of formation of the Mongolian state, noting the features in comparison with the Old Russian state;
determine the reasons for the military successes of the Mongols during the formation of the Mongol Empire;
note the role of Rus'’s struggle against the Mongol invasion for medieval European civilization;
characterize the significance of Rus'’s struggle against the German and Swedish invaders;
draw conclusions about the significance of the choice of the princes of North-Eastern Rus' in favor of an alliance with the Horde against the Catholic West.
Lesson Plan:
The formation of the Mongol state and its conquests.
Mongol invasion of Eastern and Central Europe.
Mongol power in the 13th century.
Rus' under the rule of the Golden Horde.
Rus' between the West and the Horde.
Means of education: textbook §12-13, historical map No. 7 “Russian lands in the 12th – early 13th centuries.”
Recommended methods and techniques for conducting lessons: independent work of students with the text of the textbook, a historical map with elements of a generalizing characteristic, solving cognitive tasks, work on compiling a table “Rus’ fight against the invasion of the Mongols and repelling the aggression of the West.”
Personalities: Genghis Khan, Batu, Alexander Nevsky.
Key dates: 1223 – battle on the Kalka River.
1237-1242 - Batya’s invasion of Rus'.
1240 – Battle of the Neva.
Questions for review:
Reveal the reasons for political fragmentation in Rus'.
Prove that the period of political fragmentation was accompanied by the economic and cultural rise of the Russian lands.
Compare the development of the Novgorod land and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, from the point of view of natural, economic, social and political features.
Describe the activities of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky. Why did his contemporaries call him “autocratic”?
Two lessons are allocated to study the topic. It is advisable to focus on the first three points of the lesson plan in the first lesson. The second lesson will be devoted to characterizing the most difficult issue - Rus' under the rule of the Golden Horde and the problem of choosing the princes of North-Eastern Rus' for civilizational development.
Option #1 . Since a significant part of the material in the paragraph is event-based and is largely familiar to students, the first lesson organizes independent work for students with the text of the textbook and map No. 7 to prepare answers to questions. In order to save time during the lesson, work in groups is possible.
Comparative characteristics of state formation among the Mongols and Eastern Slavs.
Reasons for the successful conquests of the Mongols.
Batya's invasion of Rus' and its consequences.
Rus' between East and West.
Work on the first issue will make it possible to repeat the process of formation of the Old Russian state and, on this basis, note the main feature of the Mongol state - “nomadic feudalism”, in which the main value was cattle. It is better to entrust this question to the most prepared group of students, since comparative analysis is quite complex. The last question of the assignment is completed by students and discussed in the second lesson.
Reference point! Many different points of view have been expressed in Russian science regarding the historical development of nomadic societies. There was a discussion among historians about “ nomadic feudalism" Some scientists believed that nomads developed according to the same laws as agricultural peoples, and the basis of their feudal relations was land ownership(pastures). Their opponents argued that the pastures of the nomads were collectively owned, and the basis of feudalism was livestock ownership.
Option #2. After a conversation with the class about the formation of the Mongolian state and the reasons for the successful conquests of the Mongols led by Genghis Khan, students conduct independent work with the text of the textbook, map No. 7 (task No. 1, p. 93). During the work, the table “Rus’ Struggle against the Mongol Invasion and Reflecting Western Aggression” is filled in, followed by a discussion of the results. In the process of this work, it is necessary to use document analysis of task No. 2 of the textbook.
date | Who did you fight with? | Events | Result |
Mongol power | The Polovtsians turned to the Russian princes for help. The united Russian-Polovtsian army and the Mongols met in a decisive battle near the Kalka River. | The military superiority of the Mongols, disagreements among the Russian princes, and the unexpected flight of the Polovtsians led to a terrible defeat for the Russian squads. |
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December 1237 | Invasion of the Mongol army led by Khan Batu. | Defeat of the troops of the Ryazan prince at the borders of the principality. Capture of the city of Ryazan. | Other principalities did not provide assistance to the Ryazan residents. The defeat of the Ryazan principality. |
January 1238 | The battle of the Vladimir-Suzdal troops with the Mongols near Kolomna. | Defeat of the Vladimir-Suzdal troops. Siege of Vladimir by the Mongols. |
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February 1238 | The assault and capture of Vladimir by the Mongols. | Another 14 cities of North-Eastern Rus' were taken by the Mongols. |
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March 1238 | Defeat of Vladimir troops on the City River. | Most of the Russian soldiers and Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich died. Before reaching Novgorod, the Mongols turned to the steppe. |
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April 1238 | The siege of the city of Kozelsk lasted 7 weeks. "Evil City" | Only by the beginning of summer did the Mongols manage to break out into the southern steppes. |
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Autumn 1239 | Devastation of the lands and principalities of Southern Rus'. | Invasion of Poland and Hungary. |
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The Swedish fleet along the Neva invaded the Novgorod possessions. Defeat of the Swedes on the Neva from the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich (Nevsky). | The Swedes failed to block the trade route along the Baltic for the Novgorodians. |
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Livonian Order | "Battle on the Ice". | The regiments of Alexander Nevsky inflicted a crushing defeat on the knights on the ice of Lake Peipsi. |
Question. Prove that the soldiers and residents of Rus' offered fierce resistance to the invaders.
As homework, you can ask tenth graders to supplement the textbook material with historical facts and examples. For the purpose of preliminary familiarization, students at home become familiar with the textbook material on the issues of “Rus under the rule of the Golden Horde” and “Rus between the Mongols and the West.”
In the second lesson, during the conversation, conclusions are analyzed and conclusions are drawn about the consequences of the Mongol invasion of Rus' and the significance of the choice of the princes of North-Eastern Rus' in favor of an alliance with the Horde against the Catholic West.
What consequences did the Mongol invasion have for Rus'?
Economic, social and cultural lag of Rus' from the countries of Western Europe.
Heavy material damage, massive loss of life, destruction of cities. Decline of crafts, trade, cities.
Students should pay attention to the fact that this is the third factor holding back the development of the country. Remember, what other factors hampered the development of Rus' and determined its lag behind the countries of Western Europe? Schoolchildren, answering this question, should name the natural-geographical factor (see §6, pp. 44 and 46) and the absence during the formation of the Old Russian state, unlike the countries of Western Europe, on the territory of a highly developed civilization in ancient times, the inability to directly use the achievements of ancient civilization (see §8, p. 59).
The military defeat delayed the political unification of the northeastern lands.
Relations between Russian lands and Orthodox countries and European countries ceased.
Contributed to the development of despotic forms of power in Rus'.
A different point of view! What positive aspects of the dependence of the northeastern principalities on the Golden Horde were noted by the historian V.O. Klyuchevsky? “In the devastated public consciousness (of the North-Eastern princes) there was only room left for the instincts of self-preservation and conquest. Only the image of Alexander Nevsky somewhat covered up the horror of savagery and fraternal bitterness that too often erupted among Russian rulers, relatives or cousins, uncles and nephews. If they had been left completely to their own devices, they would have torn their Rus' apart into incoherent, eternally warring patches of appanages. But the principalities of the then Northern Rus' were not independent possessions, but tributary “uluses” of the Tatars; their princes were called the slaves of the “free king,” as we called the Horde Khan. The power of this khan gave at least a ghost of unity to the smaller and mutually alienated patrimonial corners of the Russian princes. True, it was in vain to look for rights in the Volga Sarai. The Grand Duke's Vladimir table was the subject of bargaining and rebidding there; the Khan's purchased label covered all untruths. But the offended one did not always immediately grab his weapon, but went to seek protection from the khan, and not always unsuccessfully. The thunderstorm of the khan's wrath restrained the bullies; By mercy, that is, by arbitrariness, devastating strife was more than once prevented or stopped. The power of the khan was a rough Tatar knife, cutting the knots with which the descendants of Vsevolod III knew how to entangle the affairs of their land. It was not in vain that the Russian chroniclers called the filthy Hagarians the batog of God, admonishing sinners in order to lead them to the path of repentance.”
How was Rus''s dependence on the Golden Horde manifested?
The Khan of the Golden Horde appointed great princes. All princes had to receive from the khan shortcuts to own their lands. Contributed to the development of despotic forms of power in Rus'.
Dependence on the Golden Horde preserved political fragmentation.
Payment of tribute - "Tatar" exit" Population census, tribute collection standards established. Made it difficult to restore and develop the economy of the northeastern lands.
Administration of the Horde in the Russian principalities (until the middle of the 14th century) – Baskaki.
Punitive raids of the Golden Horde, during which the Horde took artisans and young people into slavery. Decline of crafts, trade, cities.
Was North-Eastern Rus' part of the Golden Horde?
From the point of view of the text of the textbook, North-Eastern Rus' became dependent on the Golden Horde, that is, it had “autonomy” - “the conquerors retained the system of government that had developed here, the army and religion.” However, in the “let’s summarize” section it is said that North-Eastern Rus' found itself “within the framework of the emerging Mongol Empire.” The complete personal dependence of the princes on the Mongol Khan, who gave them the right to govern their own territories, confirmation of this dependence by regular “exits”, the supply of troops for joint military operations, the presence of the Horde administration (Baskaki), can hardly serve as a valid basis for the recognition of “autonomy” » Russian lands within the Golden Horde (ulus of Jochi).
Solutiondilemmas (see page 91)(i.e., a difficult choice between two equally unpleasant possibilities) princes. The solution to the dilemma by Prince Alexander Nevsky.
1 point of view. The prudent policy of Alexander Nevsky, who understood the futility of resistance to the Mongols, based on the alliance and subordination of Odra, relying on the help of the Mongol khans against the Catholic West, allowed him to maintain his own statehood.
2 point of view. Relying on the help of the Mongol khans, Alexander Nevsky consolidated the despotic traditions of governing North-Eastern Rus'. At the same time, he actually put an end to the effective resistance of the Russian princes to the Golden Horde for many years to come.
Lesson #16. Final repetition and generalization historical material in Chapter 2 is carried out using questions and tasks proposed in the textbook (pp. 93-94). The volume of oral and written work, the form of conducting the final repetition and generalization lesson are determined by the teacher, based on the level of preparation and other characteristics of a particular class. The organization of work in this lesson can be built using various techniques and forms - a seminar, a test lesson, writing a micro-essay (see Thematic planning).
Questions for final repetition and generalization:
The influence of natural and geographical conditions on the formation and development of Ancient Rus'.
Highlight and justify the features of the emergence and development of the state among the Eastern Slavs.
Reveal the main periods of political development of Ancient Rus' in the 10th – 13th centuries.
Describe ancient Russian society and its main groups.
Determine the features of the development of the culture of Ancient Rus' of this period.
Why do scientists call this period of development of Ancient Rus' the pre-Mongol period? What changed in Rus' as a result of the invasion of the Mongols led by Batu Khan?
Tests:
1). The Eastern Slavs were characterized by an economic and cultural type
Nomadic pastoralists;
Farmers and settled pastoralists;
Nomadic pastoralists.
2). On the eve of the formation of the state, the worldview of the Eastern Slavs was
Pagan;
Not religious;
3). Read an excerpt from the work “Strategikon” and determine the social system of the Eastern Slavs.
“They do not hold those in captivity in slavery, like other tribes, for an unlimited time, but, limiting (the period of slavery) to a certain time, they offer them a choice: whether they want to return home for a certain ransom or remain there as free men ?
Slaveholding;
Feudal;
Tribal.
4). Most Russian epics are associated with the name:
Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich;
Prince Svyatopolk the Accursed;
Prince Igor Svyatoslavich.
5). What event in Russian history happened in 882?
Calling to the reign of Rurik;
The death of Prince Igor from the Drevlyans;
Prince Oleg's campaign against Kyiv.
6). Which of the named events occurred later than all the others?
Baptism of Rus';
Prince Oleg's campaign against Constantinople;
The death of Prince Igor as a result of the Drevlyan uprising.
7). The consequence of the adoption of Christianity by Russia was
Acquaintance with the heritage of antiquity;
The split of Russian society along religious lines.
8). Who owns the words mentioned in the chronicle? “If anyone does not come to the river tomorrow - be it rich, or poor, or beggar, or slave - he will be my enemy.”
Prince Yaroslav the Wise;
Prince Alexander Nevsky;
Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich.
9). The event to which the phrase “let each one keep his homeland” refers occurred in
1. 1097; 2. 1113; 3. 1237.
10). Hereditary land ownership in medieval Rus' is called:
1. Patrimony; Rope; Pogost.
eleven). The code of laws of Ancient Rus' was called:
"Salic truth";
"Russian Truth";
"Ladder".
12). Servants, procurement, serf in Ancient Rus' belonged to
Dependent population;
To the free population;
Noble population.
13). Which of the main groups of the population of the Old Russian state belongs to the article in “Russian Truth”?
“If __________ hits a free man and runs away to the mansion, ... and after that, if ________ is found anywhere by the man he has beaten, let him kill him like a dog.”
14). Establish a correspondence between the genres of ancient Russian literature and the titles of works.
A). “The Word” 1. “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”
B). Life 2. “The Tale of Bygone Years”
B) Chronicle 3. “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh.
15). Read an excerpt from the chronicle and determine which event the information contained in it relates to.
“Why are we destroying the Russian land, creating hostility against ourselves, while the Polovtsians are tearing our land apart and rejoicing that there are wars between us to this day. From now on, we will unite into one heart and protect the Russian lands. Let everyone keep his homeland..." and on that they kissed the cross... and after taking an oath, they went their separate ways..."
16). Establish a correspondence between concepts and their definitions.
A). Expansion 1. Tour of the lands subject to Kyiv by the prince and his squad from
for the purpose of collecting tribute.
B). Heresy 2. Expansion, capture of new territories.
IN). Patrimony 3. A creed different from the religious system
ideas recognized by the church.
G). Polyudye 4. Hereditary land ownership in medieval Rus'.
17). Read an excerpt from the historian’s work and determine which of the 12th-century princes it was dedicated to.
“Having not only a kind heart, but also an excellent mind, he clearly saw the cause of state disasters and wanted to save at least his region from them: that is, he abolished the unfortunate system of appanages, reigned autocratically and did not give cities to either his brothers or sons...”
Key to test tasks:
Lyubech Congress | Andrey Bogolyubsky |
Topic 3. Western Europe in the XI-XV centuries
The material on this topic gives an idea of the formation of the foundations of European civilization. The historical material of the textbook chapter examines important problems of economic (urban development, small-scale craft production), political (formation of centralized states) and social (bourgeois and the formation of new bourgeois values) processes in the countries of medieval Europe. The historical material of the chapter, which is insignificant in volume, is important from the point of view of studying similar processes in Russia and for determining the features and differences that are similar, but only at first glance, in the directions of historical development of medieval Russia and Western countries.
Lesson #17. Economic and political development.
During the lesson:
note important changes in the economic life of medieval society in Western Europe and their consequences for the rapid development of cities;
analyze the cause-and-effect relationship between the processes of economic recovery, the transformation of townspeople into an influential political force in medieval society and the formation of centralized states in Western Europe;
give a comparative description of the strengthening of royal power and the creation of centralized states using the examples of France and England;
characterize the weakening of the power of popes over secular monarchs, the growth of heretical movements in Europe.
Means of education: textbook §14.
In the interval from his death to his appearance on the historical stage Dmitry Ivanovich, on Rus' his descendants ruled.
Considering feudal fragmentation, historians by Russia of that period usually mean the principalities of Moscow, Vladimir and Novgorod (sometimes also Kiev and Galicia-Volyn).
Daniil Alexandrovich.
Daniil Alexandrovich- Jr son of Alexander Nevsky, was born at the end of 1261 just two years before his father’s death, so he was raised by his brother Alexandra Yaroslav Yaroslavovich, after whose death in 1272 Daniel became Prince of Moscow.
During the reign of Daniil Alexandrovich in Rus', another civil strife between Nevsky's sons Daniil and Andrey, as well as grandson Ivan and nephew Mikhail from Tver for the principality of Vladimir. Thanks to Daniel’s justice and peacefulness, all rivals were brought together to Dmitrov Congress Russian princes, where partially internecine war managed to stop, but some local conflicts continued to arise.
This civil strife had extremely negative consequences for the economy and culture of Rus' of that period. Daniel's brother Andrey Alexandrovich, for example, asked for help from Golden Horde in this confrontation. The Mongols took this issue seriously and launched a joint campaign with the Horde commander Tudan ( Dudenev's army) turned into the capture and plunder of Murom, Suzdal, Vladimir, Pereyaslavl, Yuryev, Rostov, Uglich, Yaroslavl, Kolomna, Moscow, Zvenigorod, Serpukhov, Mozhaisk and, possibly, other cities about which the chronicles are silent. This was one of the largest pogroms in Rus' since Batu's invasion .
Thus, the Dmitrov Congress was a step forward in the development of diplomacy, although the truce did not last long.
In addition, during his reign, Prince Daniil annexed Moscow Principality territories of Pereyaslavl and Kolomna, and he also tried to do this with Novgorod and Ryazan.
Daniil Alexandrovich built the Church of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul in the area of the current Assumption Cathedral in Moscow.
Prince Daniil Alexandrovich died in Moscow on March 5, 103, leaving behind five sons.
Ivan Kalita.
Ivan Danilovich (Ivan I, Ivan Kalita), grandson of Alexander Nevsky, was born into the family of Daniil Alexandrovich around 1283. Future Prince of Moscow, Prince of Novgorod And Grand Duke Vladimir Already at the age of 13 he became his father's governor in Novgorod.
In 1325 he became the Prince of Moscow, and three years later the Grand Duke of Vladimir.
Ivan Danilovich was nicknamed Kalita for his habit of always carrying a kalita with small change (kalita - wallet) for the poor; he was known as a generous and fair prince towards the common people.
During his reign, Prince Ivan transported from Vladimir to Moscow metropolitan, and thus made Moscow the spiritual capital of Rus'.
In the 30s of the 14th century, Ivan Danilovich became known as a great diplomat, preventing open military conflicts in the contradictions of Moscow, Novgorod, Tver and Smolensk, as well as restraining the discontent of the Golden Horde due to the irregular payment of tribute by the Russian principalities (its desire to resolve this problem with one military blow was is quite real). In addition, he had to take into account the interests of the Principality of Lithuania in relation to Rus'.
Ivan Kalita built the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow from white stone, the Archangel Cathedral, the Church of St. John, Moscow Kremlin(wooden) and the Cathedral of the Savior on Bor, which, unfortunately, has not survived (it was demolished in 1933). During his time in Moscow the famous Siya Gospel on parchment.
Thanks to the reign of Prince Kalita, peace reigned in the Moscow principality for 40 years (1328-1368), there were no military conflicts - this was the result of a competent policy with the Horde, Lithuania and other Russian princes. In addition, influence and territory Moscow Principality have increased significantly.
Ivan Danilovich Kalita died on March 31, 1340, leaving behind four sons and four daughters. In his honor, the Moskvich automobile plant produced the Moskvich - Ivan Kalita luxury car from 1998 to 2001.
Ivan Krasny.
Ivan Ivanovich (Ivan II, Ivan Krasny, Ivan the Merciful, Ivan Korotky), Prince of Zvenigorod, Prince of Novgorod, Prince of Moscow, Grand Duke Vladimir, great-grandson of Alexander Nevsky, was born into the family of Ivan Kalita.
March 30, 1326 in Moscow. Thanks to his appearance, he received the prefix “Red” (as a synonym for the word “beautiful”). Another version is based on the time of birth (on the Sunday following Easter - Krasnaya Gorka).
The downside of the reign of Ivan the Red was the weakening of the political influence of Moscow, achieved by his father, to the point that the Principality of Lithuania managed to install its metropolitan in Kiev, and the Principality of Vladimir was lost immediately after his death and Ivan the Red’s son Dmitry had to re-establish his rights to Vladimir the Great .
Ivan Ivanovich died on November 13, 1359. His main achievement was his eldest son (the youngest died at the age of 10) - Dmitry Ivanovich, better known as
The culture of our country is so interesting and diverse that I want to study it more and more deeply. Let's plunge into the history of our country in the 13th century.
A Russian person is a great person; he must know the history of his Motherland.
Without knowing the history of their country, not a single civilized society will develop, but, on the contrary, will begin to lag behind in its development, and perhaps stop altogether.
The period of culture of the 13th century is usually called the pre-Mongol period, that is, before the arrival of the Mongols in our state. During this period of time, Byzantium had a great influence on the development of culture. Thanks to Byzantium, Orthodoxy appeared in Rus'.
The culture of Ancient Rus' of the 13th century is a great creation of the past. Each period of time in history is so unrepeatable that each period separately is worthy of in-depth study. Looking at historical monuments, we can say that culture has entered modern spiritual life. Despite the fact that many works of art have not survived to our times, the beauty of that time continues to delight and surprise us with its scale.
Features of the culture of the 13th century:
- the religious worldview prevailed;
- during this period, many signs were invented, there were no explanations for them by science, and to this day they cannot be explained;
- great attention was paid to traditions, grandfathers were revered;
-slow pace of development;
The tasks facing the masters of that time:
- unity - the unity of the entire Russian people, at that time in the fight against enemies;
- glorification of great princes and boyars;
- assessed all previous historical events. The culture of the 13th century is closely connected with the past.
During this time, literature continued to develop. The work “Prayer” was written by Daniil Zatochnik. The book was dedicated to Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, son of Vsevolod the Big Nest. The book used colloquial speech combined with satire. In it, the author condemns the dominance of the boyars, the tyranny that they committed. He created a prince who protected orphans and widows, thereby trying to show that good and good-natured people were not extinct in Rus'.
The centers for storing books were still monasteries and churches. Books were copied and chronicles were kept on their territory.
The genre - Life, the main idea - has become widespread. These works were a description of the lives of saints. Particular attention was paid to the lives of monks and ordinary people.
They began to write parables.
An important place in the development of literature was occupied by chronicles, where everything that happened in people's lives was written, everything was described year by year.Epics glorified the exploits of soldiers who defended their homeland. The epics were based on events that actually happened.
Architecture.
During this period, construction began to develop. As already mentioned, the entire culture of this period was imbued with the trends of Byzantium, which could not have a positive effect on the culture of Rus'. The transition from wooden construction to stone begins.In addition, Byzantine culture always put the church and icon painting in first place, cutting off everything that contradicted Christian principles.
The coming principles of art collided with the fact that the Eastern Slavs worshiped the sun and wind. But the power of the cultural heritage of Byzantium left its mark on the culture of Ancient Rus'.
The main symbol of the construction of this period of time was the St. Sophia Cathedral. The walls of the cathedral, for the first time in Rus', were made of red brick. The church had five domes, behind them stood eight more small ones. The ceiling and walls were decorated with frescoes and mosaics. Many of the frescoes were not on a religious theme; there were many everyday drawings dedicated to the family of the Grand Duke.
Wood carving has developed greatly. The houses of the boyars were decorated with cuttings.
In addition to churches at this time, the wealthy segments of the population began to build stone houses made of pink brick.
Painting.
The paintings of the 13th century were marked by the cities where the masters worked. Thus, Novgorod painters sought to simplify the style of their craft. He achieved his greatest expression in the painting of the Church of St. George in Staraya Ladoga.At the same time, they began to paint mosaics directly on the walls of temples. Frescoes became widespread. Fresco is a painting painted with water paints directly on walls covered with plaster.
Folklore.
The history of Rus' is so great that it is impossible not to talk about folklore. Folklore occupies a huge place in the life of the Russian people. By reading epics you can learn about the entire life of the Russian people. They glorified the exploits of heroes, their strength and courage. Bogatyrs have always been glorified as protectors of the Russian population.Life and customs of the people.
The culture of our country is inextricably linked with its people, way of life, and morals. People lived in cities and villages. The main type of housing was the estate; houses were built from log frames. Kyiv in the 13th century was a very rich city. It had palaces, estates, mansions of boyars and rich merchants. The favorite pastime of the rich population was hunting hawks and falcons. The common population staged fist fights and horse races.The clothes were made of cloth. The main costume was a long shirt and trousers for men.
Women wore long skirts made of cloth. Married women wore a headscarf. Unmarried girls had long beautiful braids; they could only be cut off when they got married.
Weddings were played on a large scale in the villages; the entire village gathered for them. Huge, long tables were set right in the courtyard of the house.
Since the church played a large role in the life of the population in the 13th century, church fasts and holidays were sacredly observed by the residents.
Yaroslav the Wise tried to prevent civil strife after his death and established between his children order of succession to the Kyiv throne by seniority: from brother to brother and from uncle to eldest nephew. But this did not help to avoid a power struggle between the brothers. IN 1097 Yaroslavichs gathered in the city of Lyubich ( Lubich Congress of Princes) And prohibited princes from moving from principality to principality. Thus, the preconditions for feudal fragmentation were created. But this decision did not stop the internecine wars. Now the princes were concerned about expanding the territories of their principalities.
For a short time, the grandson of Yaroslav managed to restore peace Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125). But after his death, wars broke out with renewed vigor. Kyiv, weakened by the constant struggle with the Polovtsians and internal strife, gradually lost its leading importance. The population seeks salvation from constant plunder and moves to calmer principalities: Galicia-Volyn (Upper Dnieper) and Rostov-Suzdal (between the Volga and Oka rivers). In many ways, the princes were pushed to seize new lands by the boyars, who were interested in expanding their patrimonial lands. Due to the fact that the princes established the Kiev order of inheritance in their principalities, processes of fragmentation began in them: if at the beginning of the 12th century there were 15 principalities, then by the end of the 13th century there were already 250 principalities.
Feudal fragmentation was a natural process in the development of statehood. It was accompanied by a revival of the economy, a rise in culture and the formation of local cultural centers. At the same time, during the period of fragmentation, the awareness of national unity was not lost.
Reasons for fragmentation: 1) the absence of strong economic ties between individual principalities - each principality produced everything it needed within itself, that is, it lived on a subsistence economy; 2) the emergence and strengthening of local princely dynasties; 3) weakening of the central power of the Kyiv prince; 4) the decline of the trade route along the Dnieper “from the Varangians to the Greeks” and the strengthening of the importance of the Volga as a trade route.
Galicia-Volyn Principality located in the foothills of the Carpathians. Trade routes from Byzantium to Europe passed through the principality. In the principality, a struggle arose between the prince and the large boyars - landowners. Poland and Hungary often intervened in the struggle.
The Principality of Galicia especially strengthened under Yaroslav Vladimirovich Osmomysl (1157–1182). After his death, the Galician principality was annexed to Volyn by the prince Roman Mstislavovich (1199–1205). Roman managed to capture Kyiv, declared himself Grand Duke, and drove the Polovtsians back from the southern borders. Roman's policy was continued by his son Daniil Romanovich (1205–1264). During his time there was an invasion of the Tatar-Mongols and the prince had to recognize the power of the khan over himself. After the death of Daniel, a struggle broke out between the boyar families in the principality, as a result of which Volyn was captured by Lithuania, and Galicia by Poland.
Novgorod Principality extended throughout the Russian North from the Baltic states to the Urals. Through Novgorod there was a lively trade with Europe along the Baltic Sea. The Novgorod boyars were also drawn into this trade. After uprising of 1136 Prince Vsevolod was expelled and the Novgorodians began to invite princes to their place, that is, a feudal republic was established. Princely power was significantly limited city meeting(meeting) and Council of gentlemen. The function of the prince was reduced to organizing the defense of the city and external representation. In reality, the city was governed by the one elected at the meeting mayor and the Council of Gentlemen. The veche had the right to expel the prince from the city. Delegates from city ends took part in the meeting ( Konchan veche). All free townspeople of a given end could participate in the Konchan assembly.
The republican organization of power in Novgorod was class-based. Novgorod became the center of the fight against German and Swedish aggression.
Vladimir-Suzdal Principality was located between the Volga and Oka rivers and was protected from the steppe inhabitants by forests. By attracting the population to desert lands, the princes founded new cities and prevented the formation of city self-government (veche) and large boyar land ownership. At the same time, settling on the princely lands, free community members became dependent on the landowner, that is, the development of serfdom continued and intensified.
The beginning of the local dynasty was laid by the son of Vladimir Monomakh Yuri Dolgoruky (1125–1157). He founded a number of cities: Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Moscow. But Yuri sought to get to the great reign in Kyiv. He became the real master of the principality Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157–1174). He founded the city Vladimir-on-Klyazma and moved the capital of the principality there from Rostov. Wanting to expand the borders of his principality, Andrei fought a lot with his neighbors. The boyars removed from power organized a conspiracy and killed Andrei Bogolyubsky. Andrei's policy was continued by his brother Vsevolod Yurievich Big Nest (1176–1212) and son of Vsevolod Yuri (1218–1238). In 1221 Yuri Vsevolodovich founded Nizhny Novgorod. The development of Rus' was slow Tatar-Mongol invasion of 1237–1241.
Rus' in XII – XIIIcenturies. Political fragmentation.
IN 1132 The last powerful prince Mstislav, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, died.
This date is considered the beginning of the period of fragmentation.
Reasons for fragmentation:
1) The struggle of princes for the best reigns and territories.
2) Independence of patrimonial boyars in their lands.
3) Subsistence farming, strengthening the economic and political power of cities.
4) The decline of the Kyiv land from the raids of the steppe inhabitants.
Characteristic features of this period:
The aggravation of relations between the princes and the boyars
Princely feuds
The struggle of the princes for the “Kiev table”
The growth and strengthening of the economic and political power of cities
The rise of culture
Weakening of the country's military potential (fragmentation was the reason for the defeat of Rus' in the fight against the Mongols)
Main centers of political fragmentation:
Novgorod land
Supreme power belonged to the veche, which summoned the prince.
At the meeting, officials were elected: mayor, thousand, archbishop. Novgorod feudal republic
Vladimir - Suzdal Principality
Strong princely power (Yuri Dolgoruky (1147 - the first mention of Moscow in the chronicle), Andrei Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Big Nest)
Galicia-Volyn Principality
A powerful boyars who fought for power with the princes. Famous princes: Yaroslav Osmomysl, Roman Mstislavovich, Daniil Galitsky.
Before the Mongol invasion - the flowering of Russian culture
1223 g. - the first battle with the Mongols on the Kalka River.
The Russians tried to fight back together with the Polovtsians, but were defeated
1237-1238 - the campaign of Khan Batu to North-Eastern Rus' (the Ryazan principality was the first to be defeated)
1239-1240- to Southern Rus'
The reasons for the defeat of Rus' in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars
- Fragmentation and strife between princes
- The superiority of the Mongols in the art of war, the presence of experienced and large army
Consequences
1) Establishment of the yoke - dependence of Rus' on the Horde (payment of tribute and the need for princes to receive a label (khan's charter, which gave the prince the right to manage his lands) Baskak - khan's governor in the Russian lands
2) Devastation of lands and cities, theft of the population into slavery - undermining the economy and culture
Invasion of German and Swedish knights to the northwestern lands - Novgorod and Pskov
Goals
*capture new territories
* conversion to Catholicism
Novgorod Prince Alexander Nevsky, at the head of the Russian troops, won victories:
Russian principalities and lands in the XII – XIII centuries
on the river Neve over the Swedish knights
1242 on Lake Peipsi over the German knights (Battle of the Ice)
1251 -1263 – reign of Prince Alexander Nevsky in Vladimir. Establishing friendly relations with the Golden Horde to prevent new invasions from the West
Work plan.
I. Introduction.
II.Russian lands and principalities in the XII-XIII centuries.
1. The causes and essence of state fragmentation. Socio-political and cultural characteristics of Russian lands during the period of fragmentation.
§ 1. The feudal fragmentation of Rus' is a natural stage in the development of Russian society and the state.
§ 2. Economic and socio-political reasons for the fragmentation of Russian lands.
The Vladimir-Suzdal principality as one of the types of feudal state formations in Rus' in the 12th-13th centuries.
§ 4 Features of the geographical location, natural and climatic conditions of the Vladimir-Suzdal land.
Russian lands and principalities in the XII - first half of the XIII century.
Features of the socio-political and cultural development of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality.
2. The Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus' and its consequences. Rus' and the Golden Horde.
§ 1. The originality of the historical development and way of life of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia.
Batya's invasion and formation of the Golden Horde.
§ 3. The Mongol-Tatar yoke and its influence on ancient Russian history.
The struggle of Rus' against the aggression of the German and Swedish conquerors. Alexander Nevskiy.
§ 1. Expansion to the East of Western European countries and religious and political organizations at the beginning of the 13th century.
§ 2. Historical significance of the military victories of Prince Alexander Nevsky (Battle of the Neva, Battle of the Ice).
III. Conclusion
I. INTRODUCTION
The XII-XIII centuries, which will be discussed in this test work, are barely visible in the fog of the past.
In order to understand and understand the events of this most difficult era in the history of medieval Rus', it is necessary to get acquainted with the monuments of ancient Russian literature, study fragments of medieval chronicles and chronicles, and read the works of historians relating to this period. It is historical documents that help us see in history not a simple set of dry facts, but a complex science, the achievements of which play an important role in the further development of society, allowing us to better understand the most important events of Russian history.
Consider the reasons that determined feudal fragmentation - the political and economic decentralization of the state, the creation on the territory of Ancient Rus' of practically independent, independent state entities on the territory of Ancient Russia; to understand why the Tatar-Mongol yoke on Russian soil became possible, and how the dominance of the conquerors was manifested for more than two centuries in the field of economic, political and cultural life, and what consequences it had for the future historical development of Rus' - this is the main task of this work.
The 13th century, rich in tragic events, still excites and attracts the attention of historians and writers.
After all, this century is called the “dark period” of Russian history.
However, its beginning was bright and calm. The huge country, larger in size than any European state, was full of young creative force. The proud and strong people who inhabited it did not yet know the oppressive weight of the foreign yoke, did not know the humiliating inhumanity of serfdom.
The world in their eyes was simple and whole.
They did not yet know the destructive power of gunpowder. Distance was measured by the swing of arms or the flight of an arrow, and time by the change of winter and summer. The rhythm of their life was leisurely and measured.
At the beginning of the 12th century, axes were knocking all over Rus', new cities and villages were growing. Rus' was a country of craftsmen.
Here they knew how to weave the finest lace and build skyward cathedrals, forge reliable, sharp swords and paint the heavenly beauty of angels.
Rus' was a crossroads of peoples.
In the squares of Russian cities one could meet Germans and Hungarians, Poles and Czechs, Italians and Greeks, Polovtsians and Swedes... Many were surprised at how quickly the “Russians” assimilated the achievements of neighboring peoples, applied them to their needs, and enriched their own ancient and unique culture.
At the beginning of the 13th century, Rus' was one of the most prominent states in Europe. The power and wealth of the Russian princes were known throughout Europe.
But suddenly a thunderstorm approached the Russian land - a hitherto unknown terrible enemy.
The Mongol-Tatar yoke fell heavily on the shoulders of the Russian people. The exploitation of the conquered peoples by the Mongol khans was ruthless and comprehensive. Simultaneously with the invasion from the East, Rus' was faced with another terrible disaster - the expansion of the Livonian Order, its attempt to impose Catholicism on the Russian people.
In this difficult historical era, the heroism and love of freedom of our people manifested themselves with particular force, people rose to the occasion, whose names were forever preserved in the memory of posterity.
II. RUSSIAN LANDS AND PRINCIPALITIES IN THE XII-XIII CENTURIES.
1. CAUSES AND ESSENCE OF STATE Fragmentation. SOCIO-POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RUSSIAN LANDS
PERIOD OF FRAGRANCE.
§ 1. FEUDAL Fragmentation of Rus' – A LEGAL STAGE
DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN SOCIETY AND STATE
Since the 30s of the 12th century, the process of feudal fragmentation began in Rus'.
Feudal fragmentation is an inevitable stage in the evolution of feudal society, the basis of which is the natural economy with its isolation and isolation.
The system of natural economy that had developed by this time contributed to the isolation from each other of all individual economic units (family, community, inheritance, land, principality), each of which became self-sufficient, consuming all the product it produced. There was practically no exchange of goods in this situation.
Within the framework of a single Russian state, over the course of three centuries, independent economic regions emerged, new cities grew, large patrimonial farms and the estates of many monasteries and churches emerged and developed.
Feudal clans grew and united - the boyars with their vassals, the rich elite of the cities, church hierarchs. The nobility arose, the basis of whose life was service to the overlord in exchange for a land grant for the duration of this service.
The huge Kievan Rus with its superficial political cohesion, necessary, first of all, for defense against an external enemy, for organizing long-distance campaigns of conquest, now no longer met the needs of large cities with their branched feudal hierarchy, developed trade and craft layers, and the needs of patrimonial lands.
The need to unite all forces against the Polovtsian danger and the powerful will of the great princes - Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav - temporarily slowed down the inevitable process of fragmentation of Kievan Rus, but then it resumed with renewed vigor.
“The whole Russian land was in disarray,” as the chronicle says.
From the point of view of general historical development, the political fragmentation of Rus' is a natural stage on the path to the future centralization of the country, future economic and political takeoff on a new civilizational basis.
Europe also did not escape the collapse of early medieval states, fragmentation and local wars.
Then the process of formation of national states of a secular type, which still exist today, developed here. Ancient Rus', having gone through a period of collapse, could have come to a similar result. However, the Mongol-Tatar invasion disrupted this natural development of political life in Rus' and threw it back.
§ 2. ECONOMIC AND SOCIO-POLITICAL REASONS
Fragmentation of the Russian lands
We can highlight the economic and socio-political reasons for feudal fragmentation in Rus':
1.Economic reasons:
- growth and development of feudal boyar land ownership, expansion of estates by seizing the lands of community members, purchasing land, etc.
All this led to increased economic power and independence of the boyars and, ultimately, to an aggravation of contradictions between the boyars and the Grand Duke of Kyiv. The boyars were interested in such princely power that could provide them with military and legal protection, in particular in connection with the growing resistance of the townspeople, the smerds, to contribute to the seizure of their lands and increased exploitation.
— the dominance of subsistence farming and the lack of economic ties contributed to the creation of relatively small boyar worlds and the separatism of local boyar unions.
- in the 12th century, trade routes began to bypass Kyiv, “the path from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which once united the Slavic tribes around itself, gradually lost its former significance, because
European merchants, as well as Novgorodians, were increasingly attracted to Germany, Italy, and the Middle East.
2. Socio-political reasons :
- strengthening the power of individual princes;
- weakening of the influence of the Grand Duke of Kyiv;
- princely strife; they were based on the Yaroslav appanage system itself, which could no longer satisfy the expanded Rurik family.
There was no clear, precise order either in the distribution of inheritances or in their inheritance. After the death of the Grand Duke of Kyiv, the “table”, according to existing law, went not to his son, but to the eldest prince in the family. At the same time, the principle of seniority came into conflict with the principle of “fatherland”: when the prince-brothers moved from one “table” to another, some of them did not want to change their homes, while others rushed to the Kyiv “table” over the heads of their older brothers.
Thus, the continued order of inheritance of “tables” created the preconditions for internecine conflicts. In the middle of the 12th century, civil strife reached unprecedented severity, and the number of participants increased many times as a result of the fragmentation of the princely possessions.
At that time in Rus' there were 15 principalities and separate lands. In the next century, on the eve of Batu’s invasion, it was already 50.
- the growth and strengthening of cities as new political and cultural centers can also be considered the reason for the further fragmentation of Rus', although some historians, on the contrary, regard the development of cities as a consequence of this process.
- the fight against nomads also weakened the Principality of Kiev and slowed down its progress; in Novgorod and Suzdal it was much calmer.
Feudal fragmentation in Rus' in the 12th-13th centuries. Specific Rus'.
- Feudal fragmentation– political and economic decentralization. The creation on the territory of one state of independent principalities independent from each other, formally having a common ruler, a single religion - Orthodoxy, and uniform laws of “Russian Pravda”.
- The energetic and ambitious policy of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes led to the growing influence of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality on the entire Russian state.
- Yuri Dolgoruky, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, received the Vladimir principality during his reign.
- 1147 Moscow first appears in chronicles. The founder is the boyar Kuchka.
- Andrei Bogolyubsky, son of Yuri Dolgoruky. 1157-1174. The capital was moved from Rostov to Vladimir, the new title of the ruler was Tsar and Grand Duke.
- The Vladimir-Suzdal principality reached its heyday under Vsevolod the Big Nest.
1176-1212. The monarchy was finally established.
Consequences of fragmentation.
Positive
- growth and strengthening of cities
— Active development of crafts
— Settlement of undeveloped lands
— Road construction
— Development of domestic trade
— The flourishing of the cultural life of the principalities
Strengthening the local government apparatus
Negative
- continuation of the process of fragmentation of lands and principalities
- internecine wars
- weak central government
- vulnerability to external enemies
Specific Rus' (XII-XIII centuries)
With the death of Vladimir Monomakh in 1125.
The decline of Kievan Rus began, which was accompanied by its disintegration into separate states-principalities. Even earlier, the Lyubech Congress of Princes in 1097 established: “... let everyone maintain his fatherland” - this meant that each prince became the full owner of his hereditary principality.
The collapse of the Kyiv state into small fiefdoms, according to V.O.
Klyuchevsky, was caused by the existing order of succession to the throne. The princely throne was passed not from father to son, but from the older brother to the middle and younger. This gave rise to strife within the family and a struggle over the division of estates. External factors played a certain role: raids by nomads devastated the southern Russian lands and interrupted the trade route along the Dnieper.
As a result of the decline of Kiev, the Galician-Volyn principality rose in southern and southwestern Rus', in the northeastern part of Rus' - the Rostov-Suzdal (later Vladimir-Suzdal) principality, and in northwestern Rus' - the Novgorod Boyar Republic, from which in the 13th century century the Pskov land was allocated.
All these principalities, with the exception of Novgorod and Pskov, inherited the political system of Kievan Rus.
They were led by princes, supported by their squads. The Orthodox clergy had great political influence in the principalities.
Question
The main occupation of the inhabitants of the Mongolian state was nomadic cattle breeding.
The desire to expand their pastures is one of the reasons for their military campaigns. It must be said that the Mongol-Tatars conquered not only Rus', it was not the first state they took. Before this, they subordinated Central Asia, including Korea and China, to their interests. From China they adopted their flamethrowing weapons, and because of this they became even stronger. The Tatars were very good warriors. They were armed to the teeth, their army was very large.
They also used psychological intimidation of enemies: soldiers marched ahead of the troops, took no prisoners, and brutally killed their opponents. Their very appearance frightened the enemy.
But let's move on to the Mongol-Tatars invasion of Rus'. The Russians first encountered the Mongols in 1223. The Polovtsy asked the Russian princes to help defeat the Mongols, they agreed and a battle took place, which is called the Battle of the Kalka River. We lost this battle for many reasons, the main one being the lack of unity between the principalities.
In 1235, in the capital of Mongolia, Karakorum, a decision was made on a military campaign to the West, including Rus'.
In 1237, the Mongols attacked Russian lands, and the first city captured was Ryazan. There is also a work in Russian literature “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, one of the heroes of this book is Evpatiy Kolovrat. In the “Tale..” it is written that after the destruction of Ryazan, this hero returned to his hometown and wanted to take revenge on the Tatars for their cruelty (the city was plundered and almost all the inhabitants were killed). He gathered a detachment from the survivors and galloped after the Mongols.
All wars were fought bravely, but Evpatiy distinguished himself with special courage and strength. He killed many Mongols, but in the end he himself was killed. The Tatars brought the body of Evpatiy Batu, talking about his unprecedented strength. Batu was amazed at the unprecedented power of Evpatiy and gave the body of the hero to his surviving fellow tribesmen, and ordered the Mongols not to touch the Ryazan people.
In general, 1237-1238 are the years of the conquest of northeastern Rus'.
After Ryazan, the Mongols took Moscow, which had resisted for a long time, and burned it. Then they took Vladimir.
After the conquest of Vladimir, the Mongols divided and began to ravage the cities of northeastern Rus'.
In 1238, a battle took place on the Sit River, the Russians lost this battle.
The Russians fought with dignity, no matter what city the Mongol attacked, the people defended their Motherland (their principality). But in most cases, the Mongols still won; only Smolensk was not taken. Kozelsk also defended for a record long time: seven weeks.
After a campaign in the northeast of Rus', the Mongols returned to their homeland to rest.
But already in 1239 they returned to Rus' again. This time their goal was the southern part of Rus'.
1239-1240 – Mongol campaign against the southern part of Rus'. First they took Pereyaslavl, then the Principality of Chernigov, and in 1240 Kyiv fell.
This was the end of the Mongol invasion. The period from 1240 to 1480 is called the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'.
What are the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the yoke?
- Firstly, this is the backwardness of Rus' from European countries.
Europe continued to develop, while Rus' had to restore everything destroyed by the Mongols.
- Second- This is the decline of the economy. A lot of people were lost. Many crafts disappeared (the Mongols took artisans into slavery).
Russian lands and principalities in the 12th – first half of the 13th centuries
Farmers also moved to more northern regions of the country, safer from the Mongols. All this delayed economic development.
- Third– slowness of cultural development of Russian lands. For some time after the invasion, no churches were built at all in Rus'.
- Fourth– cessation of contacts, including trade, with the countries of Western Europe.
Now the foreign policy of Rus' was focused on the Golden Horde. The Horde appointed princes, collected tribute from the Russian people, and carried out punitive campaigns when the principalities disobeyed.
- Fifth the consequence is very controversial.
Some scientists say that the invasion and the yoke preserved political fragmentation in Rus', others argue that the yoke gave impetus to the unification of Russians.
Question
Alexander was invited to reign in Novgorod, he was then 15 years old, and in 1239 he married the daughter of the Polotsk prince Bryachislav.
With this dynastic marriage, Yaroslav sought to consolidate the union of the northwestern Russian principalities in the face of the threat hanging over them from the German and Swedish crusaders. The most dangerous situation arose at this time on the Novgorod borders. The Swedes, who had long competed with the Novgorodians for control over the lands of the Finnish tribes Em and Sum, were preparing for a new onslaught. The invasion began in July 1240. The Swedish flotilla under the command of Birger, son-in-law of the Swedish king Eric Kortavy, passed from the mouth of the Neva to the fall of the river into it.
Izhora. Here the Swedes made a stop before attacking Ladoga - the main northern fort of the Novgorod post. Meanwhile, Alexander Yaroslavich, warned by the sentinels about the appearance of the Swedish flotilla, hastily left Novgorod with his squad and a small auxiliary detachment. The prince's calculations were based on the maximum use of the surprise factor. The blow had to be delivered before the Swedes, who outnumbered the Russian army, had time to completely disembark from the ships. On the evening of July 15, the Russians quickly attacked the Swedes' camp, trapping them on the cape between the Neva and Izhora.
Thanks to this, they deprived the enemy of freedom of maneuver and at the cost of small losses, all 20 people. This victory secured the northwestern border of the Novgorod land for a long time and earned the 19-year-old prince the fame of a brilliant commander. In memory of the defeat of the Swedes, Alexander was nicknamed Nevsky. In 1241, he expelled the Germans from the Koporye fortress, and soon liberated Pskov. The further advance of Russian troops to the north-west, bypassing Lake Pskov, encountered fierce resistance from the Germans.
Alexander retreated to Lake Peipsi, bringing all available forces here. The decisive battle took place on April 5, 1242. The German battle formation had a wedge shape, traditional for the Crusaders, at the head of which were several ranks of the most experienced heavily armed knights. Knowing this feature of knightly tactics, Alexander deliberately concentrated all his forces on the flanks, in the regiments of the right and left hands. He left his own squad - the most combat-ready part of the army - in ambush in order to bring it into battle at its most critical moment.
In the center, along the very edge of the bank of the Uzmen (the channel between the Peipsi and Pskov lakes), he positioned the Novgorod infantry, which could not withstand the frontal attack of the knightly cavalry. In fact, this regiment was doomed to defeat from the very beginning. But having crushed it and thrown it to the opposite shore (towards the island of Raven Stone), the knights inevitably had to expose the weakly protected flanks of their wedge to the attack of the Russian cavalry.
Moreover, now the Russians would have the coast behind them, and the Germans would have thin spring ice. Alexander Nevsky’s calculation was completely justified: when the knight’s cavalry penetrated the pig regiment, it was captured in a pincer movement by the regiments of the Right and Left Hands, and a powerful attack by the princely squad completed the rout.
The knights fled in panic, and as Alexander Nevsky had hoped, the ice could not stand it, and the waters of Lake Peipsi swallowed up the remnants of the crusader army.
The world around us 4th grade
Hard times on Russian soil
1. Circle the border of Rus' at the beginning of the 13th century with a red pencil.
Mark on the map with arrows the path of Batu Khan across Rus'.
Write down the dates when Batu Khan attacked the cities.
Ryazan- end of 1237
Vladimir- in February 1238
Kyiv- in 1240
3. Read the poem by N. Konchalovskaya.
Previously, Rus' was appanage:
Each city is separate,
Avoiding all neighbors
Ruled by an appanage prince
And the princes did not live together.
They would need to live in friendship
And one big family
Defend your native land.
I'd be afraid then
The horde is attacking them!
Answer the questions:
- What does appanage prince mean?
By the middle of the 12th century, Rus' broke up into separate principalities, which were ruled by appanage princes
- How did the princes live? The princes did not live together, there were civil strife.
- Why were the Mongol-Tatars not afraid to attack Russian lands? The Russian princes were unable to unite to repel the enemy due to the fragmentation of the Russian principalities.
Match the battle with its date.
5. Read the description of the battle on Lake Peipsi.
The Russians fought fiercely. And how can one not fight without fury when children and wives are left behind, villages and cities are left behind, the native land with the short and sonorous name of Rus' remains.
And the crusaders came like robbers.
But where there is theft, there is cowardice nearby.
Fear took over the knight dogs, they saw that the Russians were pressing them from all sides. Heavy cavalry cannot turn around in a crush and cannot escape.
And then the Russians used hooks on long poles. They hook a knight and he’s off his horse. He crashes onto the ice, but cannot get up: he is awkward and painful in his thick armor. Here his head is off.
When the massacre was in full swing, the ice suddenly crackled under the knights and cracked. The crusaders sank, their heavy armor pulled down.
The crusaders had never known such a defeat before that time.
Since then, the knights looked to the east with fear.
They remembered the words spoken by Alexander Nevsky. And he said this: "".
(O. Tikhomirov)
Answer the questions:
- Why did the Russians fight fiercely? They defended their native land
- Why did the Crusaders' cavalry have a hard time in battle?
Russian lands and principalities 12-13 centuries (page 1 of 6)
The horsemen of the Crusaders were heavy and clumsy.
- What did the Russians use grappling hooks for? They hooked the knights with hooks and pulled them off their horses.
- What words of Alexander Nevsky did the knights remember? Underline these words of the Russian prince in the text. Remember them.
The social, political and cultural development of the Old Russian state took place in close interaction with the peoples of the surrounding countries. One of the first places among them was occupied by the mighty Byzantine Empire, the closest southern neighbor of the Eastern Slavs. Russian-Byzantine relations of the 9th-11th centuries are a complex complex, including peaceful economic, political and cultural ties, and sharp military clashes On the one hand, Byzantium was a convenient source of military booty for the Slavic princes and their warriors. On the other hand, Byzantine diplomacy sought to prevent the spread of Russian influence in the Black Sea region, and then try to turn Russia into a vassal of Byzantium , especially with the help of Christianization At the same time, there were constant economic and political contacts. Evidence of such contacts is the existence of permanent colonies of Russian merchants in Constantinople known to us from Oleg’s treaty with Byzantium (911). Trade exchange with Byzantium is reflected in a large number of Byzantine things found on the territory of our country After Christianization, cultural ties with Byzantium intensified
Russian squads, sailing across the Black Sea on ships, raided coastal Byzantine cities, and Oleg even managed to take the capital of Byzantium - Constantinople (in Russian - Constantinople). Igor’s campaign was less successful
In the second half of the 10th century, some Russian-Byzantine rapprochement was observed. Olga’s trip to Constantinople, where she was friendly received by the emperor, strengthened relations between the two countries. Byzantine emperors sometimes used Russian squads for wars with their neighbors
A new stage in Rus''s relations with Byzantium and other neighboring peoples occurred during the reign of Svyatoslav, the ideal hero of Russian chivalry. Svyatoslav pursued an active foreign policy. He came into conflict with the powerful Khazar Khaganate, which had once collected tribute from the territory of Southern Russia. Already under Igor, in 913 , 941 and 944, Russian warriors made campaigns against the Khazars, achieving the gradual liberation of the Vyatichi from paying tribute to the Khazars. The decisive blow to the Kaganate was dealt by Svyatoslav (964-965), defeating the main cities of the Kaganate and capturing its capital Sarkel. The defeat of the Khazar Kaganate led to the formation of Russian settlements on Taman Peninsula Tmutarakan principality and to the liberation from the power of the Kaganate of the Volga-Kama Bulgarians, who after this formed their own state - the first state formation of the peoples of the Middle Volga and Kama region
The fall of the Khazar Kaganate and the advance of Rus' into the Black Sea 54
nomorye caused concern among Byzantium. In an effort to mutually weaken Rus' and Danube Bulgaria, against which Byzantium pursued an aggressive policy, the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros II Phocas invited Svyatoslav to make a campaign in the Balkans. Svyatoslav won a victory in Bulgaria and captured the city of Pereyaslavets on the Danube. This result was unexpected for Byzantium There was a threat of unification of the eastern and southern Slavs into one state, which Byzantium would no longer be able to cope with. Svyatoslav himself said that he would like to move the capital of his land to Pereyaslavets
To weaken Russian influence in Bulgaria, Byzantium used Pechenegs This Turkic nomadic people was first mentioned in the Russian chronicle in 915. Initially, the Pechenegs roamed between the Volga and the Aral Sea, and then, under pressure from the Khazars, crossed the Volga and occupied the Northern Black Sea region. The main source of wealth of the Pecheneg tribal nobility were raids on Russia, Byzantium and other countries of That Russia, then Byzantium from time to time managed to “hire” the Pechenegs to attack the other side. So, during Svyatoslav’s stay in Bulgaria, they, apparently at the instigation of Byzantium, raided Kiev. Svyatoslav had to urgently return to defeat the Pechenegs, but soon he went to Bulgaria again , a war with Byzantium began there. The Russian squads fought fiercely and bravely, but the Byzantine forces outnumbered them too much. In 971.
a peace treaty was concluded, Svyatoslav’s squad was able to return to Russia with all their weapons, and Byzantium was satisfied only with Russia’s promise not to carry out attacks
However, on the way, on the Dnieper rapids, apparently having received a warning from Byzantium about the return of Svyatoslav, the Pechenegs attacked him. Svyatoslav died in battle, and the Pecheneg prince Kurya, according to chronicle legend, made a cup from Svyatoslav’s skull and drank from it at feasts. According to the ideas of that era , this showed, paradoxically as it may seem, respect for the memory of the fallen enemy; it was believed that the military valor of the owner of the skull would pass to the one who drinks from such a cup
A new stage of Russian-Byzantine relations occurs during the reign of Vladimir and is associated with the adoption of Christianity by Russia. Shortly before this event, the Byzantine Emperor Vasily II turned to Vladimir with a request to help the armed forces in suppressing the uprising of the commander Bardas Phocas, who captured Asia Minor, threatened the field of Constantine and claimed to the imperial throne In exchange for help, the emperor promised to marry his sister Anna to Vladimir. Vladimir's six-thousand-strong squad helped suppress the uprising, and Varda Foka himself was killed, but the emperor
was in no hurry with the promised marriage.
This marriage had important political significance. Just a few years earlier, the German Emperor Otto II had failed to marry the Byzantine princess Theophano. The Byzantine emperors occupied the highest place in the feudal hierarchy of the then Europe, and marriage to a Byzantine princess sharply raised the international prestige of the Russian state.
To achieve compliance with the terms of the treaty, Vladimir besieged the center of the Byzantine possessions in Crimea - Chersonese (Korsun) and took it. The Emperor had to fulfill his promise. Only after this did Vladimir make the final decision to be baptized, since by defeating Byzantium, he ensured that Russia did not have to follow in the footsteps of Byzantium’s policies. Rus' became on a par with the largest Christian powers of medieval Europe.
This position of Rus' was reflected in the dynastic ties of Russian princes.
Thus, Yaroslav the Wise was married to the daughter of the Swedish king Olaf - Indigerda. Yaroslav's daughter Anna was married to the French king Henry I, another daughter Elizabeth became the wife of the Norwegian king Harald. The Hungarian queen had a third daughter, Anastasia.
The granddaughter of Yaroslav the Wise - Eupraxia (Adelheid) was the wife of the German Emperor Henry IV.
Russian lands and principalities 12-13 centuries
One of Yaroslav’s sons, Vsevolod, was married to a Byzantine princess, another son, Izyaslav, was married to a Polish princess. Among Yaroslav's daughters-in-law were also the daughters of the Saxon margrave and Count of Staden.
Rus' also had lively trade relations with the German Empire.
Even on the remote periphery of the Old Russian state, on the territory of present-day Moscow, a piece dating back to the 11th century was found. a lead trade seal originating from some Rhine town.
Ancient Rus' had to wage a constant struggle with nomads. Vladimir managed to establish a defense against the Pechenegs. But nevertheless their raids continued. In 1036, taking advantage of the absence of Yaroslav, who had left for Novgorod, in Kiev, the Pechenegs laid siege to Kiev.
But Yaroslav quickly returned and inflicted a brutal defeat on the Pechenegs, from which they were never able to recover. They were forced out of the Black Sea steppes by other nomads - the Polovtsians.
Cumans(otherwise - Kipchaks or Cumans) - also a Turkic people - back in the 10th century.
lived on the territory of North-West Kazakhstan, but in the middle of the 10th century. moved to the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and the Caucasus. After they ousted the Pechenegs, a huge territory came under their rule, which was called the Polovtsian steppe or (in Arab sources) Dasht-i-Kipchak.
It extended from the Syr Darya and Tien Shan to the Danube. The Polovtsy were first mentioned in Russian chronicles in 1054, and in 1061.
the first encounter with them occurred: 56
“The Polovtsians came first to fight on the Russian land” The second half of the 11th-12th centuries - the time of Rus'’s struggle with the Polovtsian danger
So, the Old Russian state was one of the largest European powers and was in close political, economic and cultural relations with many countries and peoples of Europe and Asia
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The Russian state, formed on the border of Europe and Asia, which reached its peak in the 10th - early 11th centuries, has always been distinguished by its mentality: unity, strength and courage. The people have always stood united against the enemy. But at the beginning of the 12th century, as a natural stage in the development of the country, it broke up into many principalities during feudal fragmentation. The reason for this was, firstly, the feudal mode of production, and, secondly, the formation of almost independent politics, economics and other spheres of individual principalities. Communication between the princes almost ceased, the lands became isolated. The external defense of the Russian land was especially weakened. Now the princes of individual principalities pursued their own separate policies, considering primarily the interests of the local feudal nobility and entered into endless internecine wars. This led to the loss of centralized control and to a severe weakening of the state as a whole. It was during this period that the Mongol-Tatars invaded the Russian lands, unprepared for a long and strong confrontation with their opponents.
Prerequisites for the Tatar campaign against Rus'
At the kurultai 1204 – 1205. The Mongols were given the task of conquering world domination. Northern China was already in the hands of the Mongols. Having won and realizing their military power, they wanted more significant conquests and victories. And now, without stopping or leaving the marked path, they walked west. Soon, after certain events, their military mission was more clearly defined. The Mongols decided to conquer large and rich, as they believed, Western countries, and primarily Rus'. They understood that in order to accomplish this task, they first needed to take the small, weak peoples located near Rus' and on its borders. So what were the main prerequisites for the Mongol-Tatars’ campaign against Rus' and further to the west?
Battle of Kalka
Moving west, in 1219 the Mongols first defeated the Central Asian Khorezmians, then advanced into Northern Iran. In 1221, Genghis Khan's army, led by his best commanders Jebe and Subede, invaded Azerbaijan and then received orders to cross the Caucasus. Pursuing their long-time enemies the Alans (Ossetians), who were hiding among the Polovtsians, both commanders had to hit the latter and return home, bypassing the Caspian Sea.
In 1222, the Mongol army moved into the lands of the Polovtsians. The Battle of the Don took place, in which their army defeated the main forces of the Polovtsians. At the beginning of 1223, she invaded Crimea, where she captured the ancient Byzantine city of Surozh (Sudak). The Polovtsians fled to Rus' to ask for help. But the Russian princes did not trust their old opponents and greeted their request with doubt. And they perceived the appearance of a new Mongol army on the border of Rus' as another weak horde of nomads emerging from the steppe. Therefore, only a small part of the Russian princes came to the aid of the Polovtsians. A small but strong Russian-Polovtsian army was formed, ready to defeat the unprecedented Mongol army.
On May 31, 1223, the Russian-Polovtsian army reached the Kalka River. There they were met by a powerful onslaught of Mongol cavalry. Already at the beginning of the battle, some of the Russians could not resist the skilled Mongol archers and ran. Even the frantic onslaught of Mstislav the Udal’s squad, which almost broke through the Mongol battle lines, ended in failure. The Polovtsian troops turned out to be very unstable in battle: the Polovtsians could not withstand the blow of the Mongol cavalry and fled, disrupting the battle formations of the Russian squads. Even one of the strongest Russian princes, Mstislav of Kiev, never entered into battle with his numerous and well-armed regiment. He died ingloriously, surrendering to the Mongols who surrounded him. The Mongol cavalry pursued the remnants of the Russian squads to the Dnieper. The rest of the Russian-Polovtsian squad tried to fight to the last. But ultimately the Mongol army was victorious. The Russian warriors were cut to pieces. The Mongols themselves placed the princes under a wooden platform and crushed them, holding a festive banquet on it.
Russian losses in the battle were very high. The Mongolian army, already exhausted by battles in Central Asia and the Caucasus, was able to defeat even the selected Russian regiments of Mstislav the Udal, which speaks of its military strength and power. At the Battle of Kalka, the Mongols first encountered Russian methods of warfare. This battle showed the superiority of Mongolian military traditions over European ones: collective discipline over individual heroism, trained archers over heavy cavalry and infantry. These tactical differences became the key to Mongol success on Kalka, and subsequently to the lightning-fast conquest of Eastern and Central Europe.
For Rus', the battle on Kalka turned into a catastrophe, “which has never happened before.” The historical center of the country - the southern and central Russian lands - lost their princes and troops. Fifteen years before the start of the Mongol invasion of Rus', these territories were never able to restore their potential. The battle turned out to be a harbinger of the difficult times that befell Kievan Rus during the Mongol invasion.
Kurultai 1235
In 1235, the Mongols held another kurultai, at which they decided on a new campaign of conquest in Europe, “to the last sea.” After all, according to their information, Rus' was located there, and it was famous for its numerous riches.
All of Mongolia began to prepare for a new grandiose campaign of conquest to the West. The army was carefully prepared. The best military leaders, a number of Mongol princes, were involved. A new khan, Genghis Khan’s son Jochi, was placed at the head of the campaign. But in 1227 they both died, so the campaign to Europe was entrusted to Jochi’s son, Batu. The new Great Khan Udegei sent troops from Mongolia to reinforce Batu under the command of one of the best commanders - the wise old Subede, who participated in the battle of Kalka, to conquer Volga Bulgaria and Rus'. As always, Mongolian intelligence was at the highest level. With the help of merchants who traded along the Great Silk Road (from China to Spain), all the necessary information was collected about the state of Russian lands, about the routes leading to the cities, about the size of the Russian army, and much other information. After which it was decided to first completely defeat the Polovtsy and Volga Bulgars in order to secure the rear, and then attack Rus'.
Hike to north-eastern Rus'. On the way to Rus'
The Mongol-Tatars headed towards the southeast of Europe. In the fall of 1236, their main forces, which came from Mongolia, united with the Jochi troops sent to help within Bulgaria. In the late autumn of 1236, the Mongols began its conquest. “The same autumn,” as the Laurentian Chronicle says, “the godless Tatars came from the eastern countries to the Bulgarian land, and took the glorious Great Bulgarian city and beat with weapons from the old man to the old man and to the mere infant, and took a lot of goods, and burned their city fire, and took their whole land into captivity.” Eastern sources also report the complete defeat of Bulgaria. Rashid ad-Din (“In that winter”) writes that the Mongols “reached the city of Bulgar the Great and its other regions, defeated the local army and forced them to submit.” Volga Bulgaria was terribly devastated. Almost all of its cities were destroyed. Rural areas were also subjected to massive devastation. In the basin of the Berda and Aktai rivers, almost all settlements were destroyed.
By the spring of 1237, the conquest of Volga Bulgaria was completed. A large Mongol army led by Subede moved to the Caspian steppes, where the war with the Cumans, which began in 1230, continued.
The first blow in the spring of 1237 was dealt by the Mongols to the Cumans and Alans. From the Lower Volga, Mongol troops moved “in a raid, and the country that fell into it was captured, marching in formations.” The Mongol-Tatars crossed the Caspian steppes on a wide front and united somewhere in the Lower Don region. The Polovtsians and Alans suffered a strong, crushing blow.
The next stage of the war of 1237 in South-Eastern Europe was an attack on the Burtases, Mokshas and Mordovians. The conquest of the Mordovian lands, as well as the lands of the Burtases and Ardzhans, ended in the autumn of that year.
The campaign of 1237 was intended to prepare a springboard for the invasion of North-Eastern Rus'. The Mongols dealt a strong blow to the Polovtsians and Alans, pushing the Polovtsian nomads to the west, beyond the Don, and conquered the lands of the Burtases, Mokshas and Mordovians, after which preparations began for the campaign against Rus'.
In the autumn of 1237, the Mongol-Tatars began preparations for a winter campaign against North-Eastern Rus'. Rashid ad-Din reports that “in the autumn of the mentioned year (1237) all the princes who were there organized a kurultai and, by general agreement, went to war against the Russians.” This kurultai was attended by both the Mongol khans, who destroyed the lands of the Burtases, Mokshas and Mordovians, and the khans who fought in the south with the Polovtsians and Alans. All the forces of the Mongol-Tatars gathered for a campaign against North-Eastern Rus'. The place of concentration of Mongol troops in the fall of 1237 was the lower reaches of the Voronezh River. Mongol troops who had ended the war with the Polovtsians and Alans arrived here. The Tatars were ready for an important and complex offensive against the Russian state.
Hike to the northeast of Rus'
In December 1237, Batu's troops appeared on the frozen rivers Sura, Voronezh, a tributary of the Volga and Don. Winter opened the way for them along the ice of rivers to North-Eastern Rus'.
“An unheard-of army has come, the godless Moabites, and their name is Tatars, but no one knows who they are and where they came from, and what their language is, and what tribe they are, and what their faith is. And some say Taurmen, and others say Pechenegs.” With these words begins the chronicle of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russian soil.
Ryazan land
At the beginning of the winter of 1237, the Mongol-Tatars moved from the Voronezh River along the eastern edge of the forests stretching in its floodplain to the borders of the Ryazan principality. Along this path, covered by forests from the Ryazan guard posts, the Mongol-Tatars silently walked to the middle reaches of Lesnoy and Polny Voronezh. But they were noticed there by Ryazan patrols and from that moment came to the attention of Russian chroniclers. Another group of Mongols also approached here. Here they stayed for quite a long time, during which the troops were arranged and prepared for the campaign.
Russian troops could do nothing to oppose the strong Mongol troops. Strife and strife between the princes did not allow united forces to be deployed against Batu. The princes of Vladimir and Chernigov refused to help Ryazan.
Approaching the Ryazan land, Batu demanded from the Ryazan princes a tenth of everything that was in the city. In the hope of reaching an agreement with Batu, the Ryazan prince sent an embassy to him with rich gifts. The Khan accepted the gifts, but put forward humiliating and arrogant demands: in addition to the huge tribute, he should give the prince’s sisters and daughters as wives to the Mongolian nobility. And for himself personally, he set his sights on the beautiful Eupraksinya, Fedor’s wife. The Russian prince responded with a decisive refusal and, together with the ambassadors, was executed. And the beautiful princess, together with her little son, so as not to fall to the conquerors, threw herself down from the high bell tower. The Ryazan army moved to the Voronezh River to strengthen the garrisons on the fortified lines and prevent the Tatars from going deep into the Ryazan land. However, the Ryazan squads did not have time to reach Voronezh. Batu quickly invaded the Ryazan principality. Somewhere on the outskirts of Ryazan there was a battle between the united Ryazan army and the hordes of Batu. The battle, in which the Ryazan, Murom and Pron squads took part, was stubborn and bloody. 12 times the Russian squad came out of encirclement, “one Ryazan man fought with a thousand, and two with darkness (ten thousand)” - this is how the chronicle writes about this battle. But Batu had a great superiority in strength, and the Ryazan army suffered heavy losses.
After the defeat of the Ryazan squads, the Mongol-Tatars immediately moved deeper into the Ryazan principality. They passed through the space between Ranova and Pronya, and went down the Prony River, destroying the Pronian cities. On December 16, the Mongol-Tatars approached Ryazan. The siege has begun. Ryazan held out for 5 days, on the sixth day, on the morning of December 21, it was taken. The entire city was destroyed and all the inhabitants were exterminated. The Mongol-Tatars left only ashes behind them. The Ryazan prince and his family also died. The surviving inhabitants of the Ryazan land gathered a squad (about 1,700 people), led by Evpatiy Kolovrat. They caught up with the enemy in Suzdal and began to wage guerrilla warfare against him, inflicting heavy losses on the Mongols.
Principality of Vladimir
Now in front of Batu lay several roads into the depths of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Since Batu was faced with the task of conquering all of Rus' in one winter, he headed to Vladimir along the Oka, through Moscow and Kolomna. The invasion moved close to the borders of the Vladimir principality. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich, who at one time refused to help the Ryazan princes, himself found himself in danger.
“And Batu went to Suzdal and Vladimir, intending to captivate the Russian land, and eradicate the Christian faith, and destroy the churches of God to the ground,” - this is how the Russian chronicle writes. Batu knew that the troops of the Vladimir and Chernigov princes were coming towards him, and expected to meet them somewhere in the Moscow or Kolomna region. And he turned out to be right.
The Laurentian Chronicle writes this way: “The Tatars surrounded them at Kolomna and fought hard, there was a great battle, they killed Prince Roman and the governor Eremey, and Vsevolod with a small squad ran to Vladimir.” The Vladimir army died in this battle. Having defeated the Vladimir regiments near Kolomna, Batu approached Moscow, quickly took and burned the city in mid-January, and killed the inhabitants or took them prisoner.
On February 4, 1238, the Mongol-Tatars approached Vladimir. The capital of North-Eastern Rus', the city of Vladimir, surrounded by new walls with powerful stone gate towers, was a strong fortress. From the south it was covered by the Klyazma River, from the east and north by the Lybid River with steep banks and ravines.
By the time of the siege, a very alarming situation had developed in the city. Prince Vsevolod Yuryevich brought news of the defeat of the Russian regiments near Kolomna. New troops had not yet gathered, and there was no time to wait for them, since the Mongol-Tatars were already close to Vladimir. Under these conditions, Yuri Vsevolodovich decided to leave part of the collected troops for the defense of the city, and go north himself and continue collecting troops. After the departure of the Grand Duke, a small part of the troops remained in Vladimir, led by the governor and the sons of Yuri - Vsevolod and Mstislav.
Batu approached Vladimir on February 4 from the most vulnerable side, from the west, where a flat field lay in front of the Golden Gate. The Mongol detachment, leading Prince Vladimir Yuryevich, who was captured during the defeat of Moscow, appeared in front of the Golden Gate and demanded the voluntary surrender of the city. After the refusal of the Vladimir people, the Tatars killed the captured prince in front of his brothers. To inspect the fortifications of Vladimir, part of the Tatar detachments traveled around the city, and Batu’s main forces camped in front of the Golden Gate. The siege began.
Before the assault on Vladimir, the Tatar detachment destroyed the city of Suzdal. This short hike is quite understandable. Beginning the siege of the capital, the Tatars learned about Yuri Vsevolodovich’s exit from the city with part of the army and feared a sudden attack. And the most likely direction of the Russian prince’s attack could be Suzdal, which covered the road from Vladimir to the north along the Nerl River. Yuri Vsevolodovich could rely on this fortress, which was located only 30 km from the capital.
Suzdal was left almost without defenders and was deprived of its main water cover due to winter time. That is why the city was taken by the Mongol-Tatars immediately. Suzdal was plundered and burned, its population was killed or taken prisoner. Settlements and monasteries in the vicinity of the city were also destroyed.
At this time, preparations for the assault on Vladimir continued. To intimidate the city’s defenders, the conquerors held thousands of prisoners under the walls. On the eve of the general assault, the Russian princes who led the defense fled from the city. On February 6, the Mongol-Tatar battering machines broke through the Vladimir walls in several places, but on that day the Russian defenders managed to repel the assault and did not allow them into the city.
The next day, early in the morning, the Mongol-Tatar battering guns finally broke through the city wall. A little later, the fortifications of the “New City” were broken through in several more places. By the middle of the day on February 7, the “New City,” engulfed in fire, was captured by the Mongol-Tatars. The defenders who survived fled to the middle, “Pecherny city”. Pursuing them, the Mongol-Tatars entered the “Middle City”. And again, the Mongol-Tatars immediately broke through the stone walls of the Vladimir castle and set it on fire. It was the last stronghold of the defenders of the Vladimir capital. Many residents, including the princely family, took refuge in the Assumption Cathedral, but the fire overtook them there too. The fire destroyed the most valuable monuments of literature and art. Numerous temples of the city turned into ruins.
The fierce resistance of the defenders of Vladimir, despite the significant numerical superiority of the Mongol-Tatars and the flight of the princes from the city, caused great damage to the Mongol-Tatars. Eastern sources, reporting the capture of Vladimir, create a picture of a long and stubborn battle. Rashid ad-Din says that the Mongols “took the city of Yuri the Great in 8 days. They (the besieged) fought fiercely. Mengu Khan personally performed heroic feats until he defeated them.”
Trek deep into Rus'
After the capture of Vladimir, the Mongol-Tatars began to destroy the cities of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. This stage of the campaign is characterized by the death of most cities between the Klyazma and Upper Volga rivers.
In February 1238, the conquerors moved from the capital in several large detachments along the main river and trade routes, destroying urban centers of resistance.
The campaigns of the Mongol-Tatars in February 1238 were aimed at the destruction of cities - centers of resistance, as well as the destruction of the remnants of the Vladimir troops, which were collected by the fleeing Yuri Vsevolodovich. They also had to cut off the grand ducal “camp” from Southern Rus' and Novgorod, from where reinforcements could be expected. Solving these problems, the Mongol troops moved from Vladimir in three main directions: to the north - to Rostov, to the east - to the Middle Volga (to Gorodets), to the northwest - to Tver and Torzhok.
The main forces of Batu went from Vladimir to the north to defeat Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich. The Tatar army passed along the ice of the Nerl River and, before reaching Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, turned north to Lake Nero. Rostov was abandoned by the prince and his squad, so he surrendered without a fight.
From Rostov, the Mongol troops went in two directions: a large army headed north along the ice of the Ustye River and further along the plain to Uglich, and another large detachment moved along the Kotorosl River to Yaroslavl. These directions of movement of the Tatar detachments from Rostov are quite understandable. Through Uglich lay the shortest road to the tributaries of the Mologa, to the City, where Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich was camped. The march to Yaroslavl and further along the Volga to Kostroma through the rich Volga cities cut off Yuri Vsevolodovich’s retreat to the Volga and ensured a meeting somewhere in the Kostroma region with another Tatar detachment moving up the Volga from Gorodets.
The chroniclers do not report any details of the capture of Yaroslavl, Kostroma and other cities along the Volga. Only on the basis of archaeological data can we assume that Yaroslavl was severely destroyed and could not be restored for a long time. There is even less information about the capture of Kostroma. Kostroma, apparently, was the place where the Tatar detachments that came from Yaroslavl and Gorodets met. Chroniclers report on campaigns of Tatar troops even to Vologda.
The Mongol detachment, which moved from Vladimir to the northwest, was the first to encounter the city of Pereyaslavl-Zalessky - a strong fortress on the shortest waterway from the Klyazma River basin to Novgorod. A large Tatar army approached Pereyaslavl along the Nerl River in mid-February and, after a five-day siege, took the city by storm.
From Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Tatar detachments moved in several directions. As the chronicle reports, some of them went to help the Tatar Khan Burundai to Rostov. The other part joined the Tatar army, which had earlier turned from the Nerl to Yuryev. The remaining troops moved across the ice of Lake Pleshcheevo and the Nerl River to Ksnyatin to cut the Volga route. The Tatar army, moving along the Nerl to the Volga, took Ksnyatin and quickly moved up the Volga to Tver and Torzhok. Another Mongol army captured Yuryev and went further west, through Dmitrov, Volokolamsk and Tver to Torzhok. Near Tver, Tatar troops joined forces with troops rising up the Volga from Ksnyatin.
As a result of the February campaigns of 1238, the Mongol-Tatars destroyed Russian cities over a vast territory, from the Middle Volga to Tver.
Battle on the City
By the beginning of March 1238, the Mongol-Tatar detachments that pursued the Vladimir prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, who had fled from the city, reached the Upper Volga line on a wide front. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich, who was gathering troops in a camp on the City River, found himself close to the Tatar army. The large Tatar army moved from Uglich and Kashin to the City River. On the morning of March 4 they were at the river. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich was never able to gather sufficient forces. A fight ensued. Despite the surprise of the attack and the large numerical superiority of the Tatar army, the battle was stubborn and lengthy. But still, the army of the Vladimir prince could not withstand the blow of the Tatar cavalry and ran. As a result, the Russian army was defeated, and the Grand Duke himself died. The historical source Rashid ad-Din did not attach much importance to the battle of the City; in his view, it was simply a pursuit of the prince who had fled and was hiding in the forests.
Siege of Torzhok
Almost simultaneously with the Battle of the City, in March 1238, a Tatar detachment captured the city of Torzhok, a fortress on the southern borders of the Novgorod land. The city was a transit point for wealthy Novgorod merchants and traders from Vladimir and Ryazan, who supplied Novgorod with bread. Torzhok always had large reserves of grain. Here the Mongols hoped to replenish their food supplies that had become depleted over the winter.
Torzhok occupied an advantageous strategic position: it blocked the shortest route from the “Nizovskaya land” to Novgorod along the Tvertsa River. The defensive earthen rampart on the Borisoglebskaya side of Torzhok had a height of 6 fathoms. However, in winter conditions this important advantage of the city largely disappeared, but still Torzhok was a serious obstacle on the way to Novgorod and delayed the advance of the Mongol-Tatars for a long time.
The Tatars approached Torzhok on February 22. There was neither a prince nor a princely squad in the city, and the entire burden of defense was taken upon the shoulders of the townspeople, led by elected mayors. After a two-week siege and the continuous work of the Tatar siege engines, the city people weakened. Finally, Torzhok, exhausted by a two-week siege, fell. The city was subjected to a terrible defeat, most of its inhabitants died.
Hike to Novgorod
Regarding Batu's campaign against Novgorod, historians usually say that by this time significant forces of the Mongol-Tatars had concentrated near Torzhok. And only the Mongol troops, weakened from continuous battles, due to the approach of spring with its thaw and floods, were forced to return, not reaching 100 versts to Novgorod.
However, chroniclers report that the Mongol-Tatars headed towards Novgorod immediately after the capture of Torzhok, pursuing the surviving defenders of the city. Taking into account the location of all the Mongol-Tatar troops at this time, one can reasonably assume that only a small separate detachment of Tatar cavalry was moving towards Novgorod. Therefore, his campaign did not have the goal of taking the city: it was a simple pursuit of a defeated enemy, usual for the tactics of the Mongol-Tatars.
After the capture of Torzhok, the Mongol-Tatar detachment began to pursue the defenders of the city who had emerged from encirclement along the Seliger route further. But, not having reached Novgorod a hundred miles, this Mongol-Tatar cavalry detachment united with the main forces of Batu.
And yet the turn away from Novgorod is usually explained by spring floods. In addition, in the 4-month battles with the Russians, the Mongol-Tatars suffered huge losses, and Batu’s troops found themselves scattered. So the Mongol-Tatars did not try to attack Novgorod in the spring of 1238.
Kozelsk
After Torzhok, Batu turns south. He walked across the entire territory of Rus', using hunting raid tactics. In the upper reaches of the Oka, the Mongols met fierce resistance from the small fortress of Kozelsk. Despite the fact that the city prince Vasilko Konstantinovich was still too young, and despite the fact that the Mongols demanded to surrender the city, the Kozel residents decided to defend themselves. The heroic defense of Kozelsk lasted for seven weeks. The Kozel residents destroyed about 4 thousand Mongols, but were unable to defend the city. Bringing siege equipment to it, the Mongol troops destroyed the city walls and entered Kozelsk. Batu did not spare anyone, despite his age, he killed the entire population in the city. He ordered the city to be razed to the ground, the ground plowed up and the place filled with salt so that it could never be rebuilt. Prince Vasilko Konstantinovich, according to legend, drowned in blood. Batu called the city of Kozelsk an “evil town.” From Kozelsk, the combined forces of the Mongol-Tatars, without stopping, moved south to the Polovtsian steppes.
Mongol-Tatars in the Polovtsian steppes
Stay of the Mongol-Tatars in the Polovtsian steppes from the summer of 1238 to the autumn of 1240. is one of the least studied periods of the invasion. In historical sources, there is an opinion that this period of invasion is the time of the Mongols’ retreat to the steppes for rest, restoration of regiments and horse army after a difficult winter campaign in North-Eastern Rus'. The entire stay of the Mongol-Tatars in the Polovtsian steppes is perceived as a break in the invasion, filled with restoration of strength and preparation for the big campaign to the West.
However, eastern sources describe this period in a completely different way: the entire period of Batu’s stay in the Polovtsian steppes was filled with continuous wars with the Polovtsians, Alans and Circassians, numerous invasions of border Russian cities, and the suppression of popular uprisings.
Military operations began in the fall of 1238. A large Mongol-Tatar army headed towards the land of the Circassians, beyond the Kuban. Almost simultaneously, a war began with the Polovtsians, whom the Mongol-Tatars had previously forced out across the Don. The war with the Polovtsians was long and bloody, a huge number of Polovtsians were killed. As the chronicles write, all the forces of the Tatars were thrown into the fight against the Polovtsians, so Rus' was peaceful at that time.
In 1239, the Mongol-Tatars intensified military operations against the Russian principalities. Their campaigns hit the lands that were located next to the Polovtsian steppes, and were carried out with the aim of expanding the land they conquered.
In winter, a large Mongol army moved north to the region of Mordva and Murom. During this campaign, the Mongol-Tatars suppressed the uprising of the Mordovian tribes, took and destroyed Murom, devastated the lands along the Nizhnyaya Klyazma and reached Nizhny Novgorod.
In the steppes between the Northern Donets and the Dnieper, the war between the Mongol troops and the Polovtsians continued. In the spring of 1239, one of the Tatar detachments that approached the Dnieper defeated the city of Pereyaslavl, a strong fortress on the borders of Southern Rus'.
This capture was one of the stages of preparation for a large campaign to the west. The next campaign had the goal of defeating Chernigov and the cities along the Lower Desna and Seim, since the Chernigov-Seversk land was not yet conquered and threatened the right flank of the Mongol-Tatar army.
Chernigov was a well-fortified city. Three defensive lines protected it from enemies. The geographical position near the borders of the Russian land and active participation in internecine wars created in Rus' the opinion of Chernigov as a city famous for its large number of warriors and courageous population.
The Mongol-Tatars appeared within the Chernigov principality in the fall of 1239, invaded these lands from the southeast and surrounded them. A fierce battle began on the walls of the city. The defenders of Chernigov, as the Laurentian Chronicle describes, threw heavy stones from the walls of the city at the Tatars. After a fierce battle on the walls, the enemies burst into the city. Having taken it, the Tatars beat up the local population, plundered the monasteries and set fire to the city.
From Chernigov, the Mongol-Tatars moved east along the Desna and further along the Seim. There, numerous cities built to protect against nomads (Putivl, Glukhov, Vyr, Rylsk, etc.) were destroyed and the countryside was devastated. Then the Mongol army turned south, to the upper reaches of the Northern Donets.
The last Mongol-Tatar campaign in 1239 was the conquest of Crimea. The Polovtsians, defeated by the Mongols in the Black Sea steppes, fled here, to the steppes of the northern Crimea and further to the sea. Pursuing them, Mongol troops came to Crimea. The city was taken.
Thus, during 1239, the Mongol-Tatars defeated the remnants of the Polovtsian tribes that they had not conquered, made significant campaigns in the Mordovian and Murom lands, and conquered almost the entire Left Bank of the Dnieper and the Crimea. Now the Tatar possessions came close to the borders of Southern Rus'. The southwestern direction of Rus' was the next target for the Mongol invasion.
A trip to southwestern Rus'. Preparing for the hike
At the beginning of 1240, in winter, the Mongol army approached Kyiv. This trip can be regarded as reconnaissance of the area before the start of hostilities. Since the Tatars did not have the strength to take fortified Kyiv, they limited themselves to reconnaissance and a short throw to the right bank of the Dnieper to pursue the retreating Kyiv prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich. Having captured the "full", the Tatars turned back.
In the spring of 1240, a significant army was moved south, along the Caspian coast, to Derbent. This advance to the south, to the Caucasus, was not accidental. The forces of the Jochi ulus, partially freed after the campaign against North-Eastern Rus', were used to complete the conquest operation of the Caucasus. Previously, the Mongols continuously attacked the Caucasus from the south: in 1236, Mongol troops devastated Georgia and Armenia; 1238 conquered the lands between the Kura and Araks; in 1239 they captured Kars and the city of Ani, the former capital of Armenia. The troops of the Jochi ulus took part in the general Mongol offensive in the Caucasus with attacks from the north. The peoples of the North Caucasus stubbornly resisted the conquerors.
By the fall of 1240, preparations for a large campaign to the west were completed. The Mongols conquered areas that were not conquered in the campaign of 1237-38, suppressed popular uprisings in the Mordovian lands and Volga Bulgaria, occupied the Crimea and the North Caucasus, destroyed Russian fortified cities on the left bank of the Dnieper (Pereyaslavl, Chernigov) and came close to Kyiv. He was the first point of attack.
Hike to the southwest of Rus'
In historical literature, the presentation of the facts of Batu’s campaign against Southern Rus' usually begins with the siege of Kyiv. He, “the mother of Russian cities,” was the first large city on the path of the new Mongol invasion. The bridgehead for the invasion had already been prepared: Pereyaslavl, the only large city that covered the approaches to Kyiv from this side, was taken and destroyed in the spring of 1239.
The news of Batu's impending campaign reached Kyiv. However, despite the immediate danger of invasion, no attempts were noticeable in Southern Rus' to unite to repel the enemy. Princely strife continued. Kyiv was actually left to its own forces. He did not receive any help from other southern Russian principalities.
Batu began the invasion in the fall of 1240, again gathering under his command all the people devoted to himself. In November he approached Kyiv, the Tatar army surrounded the city. Spread over the high hills above the Dnieper, the great city was heavily fortified. The powerful ramparts of the Yaroslav city covered Kyiv from the east, south and west. Kyiv resisted the incoming enemies with full force. The people of Kiev defended every street, every house. But, nevertheless, with the help of powerful battering guns and rapids, on December 6, 1240, the city fell. It was terribly devastated, most of the buildings were destroyed in the fire, the inhabitants were killed by the Tatars. Kyiv lost its significance as a major urban center for a long time.
Now, after the capture of great Kyiv, the path to all centers of Southern Rus' and Eastern Europe was open for the Mongol-Tatars. It's Europe's turn.
Batu's exit from Rus'
From the destroyed Kyiv, the Mongol-Tatars moved further west, in the general direction to Vladimir-Volynsky. In December 1240, under the onslaught of Mongol-Tatar troops, the cities along Middle Teterev were abandoned by the population and garrisons. Most of the Bolokhov cities also surrendered without a fight. The Tatars confidently, without turning aside, walked west. On the way, they encountered strong resistance from small towns on the outskirts of Rus'. Archaeological studies of settlements in this area recreate the picture of the heroic defense and destruction of fortified towns under the blows of superior forces of the Mongol-Tatars. Vladimir-Volynsky was also taken by the Mongols by storm after a short siege. The final point of the “raid”, where the Mongol-Tatar detachments united after the devastation of South-Western Rus', was the city of Galich. After the Tatar pogrom, Galich became deserted.
As a result, having defeated the Galician and Volyn lands, Batu left the Russian lands. In 1241, a campaign began in Poland and Hungary. Batu’s entire campaign against Southern Rus' thus took very little time. With the departure of the Mongol-Tatar troops abroad, the Mongol-Tatar campaign against Russian lands ended.
Coming out of Rus', Batu’s troops invade the states of Europe, where they instill horror and fear in the inhabitants. In Europe it was stated that the Mongols had escaped from hell, and everyone was waiting for the end of the world. But Rus' still resisted. In 1241 Batu returned to Rus'. In 1242, in the lower reaches of the Volga, he established his new capital - Sarai-bata. At the end of the 13th century, after Batu created the state of the Golden Horde, the Horde yoke was established in Rus'.
Establishment of the yoke in Rus'
The Mongol-Tatar campaign against Russian lands ended. Rus' was devastated after the terrible invasion, but gradually it begins to recover, normal life is restored. The surviving princes return to their capitals. The dispersed population is gradually returning to Russian lands. Cities are being restored, villages and villages are being repopulated.
In the first years after the invasion, the Russian princes were more worried about their destroyed cities, engaged in their restoration, and the distribution of princely tables. They were now less concerned about the problem of establishing any kind of relations with the Mongol-Tatars. The invasion of the Tatars did not have much impact on the interpersonal relations of the princes: in the capital of the country, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich sat on the grand-ducal throne, and transferred the remaining lands into the possession of his younger brothers.
But the calm of Rus' was disrupted again when the Mongol-Tatars, after a campaign against Central Europe, appeared on Russian lands. The Russian princes were faced with the question of establishing some kind of relationship with the conquerors. Touching upon the issue of further relations with the Tatars, the problem of disputes between the princes arose: opinions differed on further actions. The cities captured by the Mongol armies were in a terrible state of destruction. Some cities were completely burned out. Temples, churches, cultural monuments were destroyed and also burned. To restore the city before the time of the Mongol invasion, enormous forces, funds and time were needed. The Russian people had no strength: neither to restore cities, nor to fight the Tatars. Strong and wealthy cities in the northwestern and western outskirts that were not subject to the Mongol invasion (Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk, Minsk, Vitebsk, Smolensk) joined the opposition. They, accordingly, opposed the recognition of dependence on the Horde khans. They were not harmed, retaining their lands, wealth and armies.
The existence of these two groups - the northwestern one, which opposed the recognition of dependence on the Horde, and the Rostov one, which was inclined to establish peaceful relations with the conquerors - largely determined the policy of the Grand Duke of Vladimir. In the first decade after Batu's invasion, it was ambivalent. But the people of northeastern Rus' did not have the strength to openly resist the conquerors, which made the recognition of Rus'’s dependence on the Golden Horde khans inevitable.
In addition, the prince’s decision was influenced by a significant circumstance: the voluntary recognition of the power of the Horde khan provided the Grand Duke personally with certain advantages in the struggle to subjugate other Russian princes to his influence. In case of non-recognition of the dependence of the Russian land on the Horde, the prince could be overthrown from his grand-ducal table. But on the other hand, the prince’s decision was influenced by the existence of strong opposition to the Horde power in North-Western Rus' and the West’s repeated promises of military assistance against the Mongol-Tatars. These circumstances could awaken hope, under certain conditions, to resist the claims of the conquerors. In addition, in Rus' the masses constantly spoke out against the foreign yoke, with whom the Grand Duke could not help but take them into account. As a result, formal recognition of Rus'’s dependence on the Golden Horde was proclaimed. But the fact of recognition of this power did not actually mean the establishment of a foreign yoke over the country.
The first decade after the invasion is the period when the foreign yoke was just taking shape. At this time, popular forces in Rus' spoke out for Tatar rule, and so far they were victorious.
The Russian princes, recognizing their dependence on the Mongol-Tatars, tried to establish relations with them, for which they often visited the Horde khan. Following the Grand Duke, other princes flocked to the Horde “about their fatherland.” Probably, the trip of the Russian princes to the Horde was somehow connected with the formalization of tributary relations.
Meanwhile, strife continued in North-Eastern Rus'. And among the princes, two oppositions stood out: for and against dependence on the Golden Horde.
But in general, in the early 50s of the 13th century, a fairly strong anti-Tatar group formed in Rus', ready to resist the conquerors.
However, the policy of Grand Duke Andrei Yaroslavich, aimed at organizing resistance to the Tatars, collided with the foreign policy of Alexander Yaroslavich, who considered it necessary to maintain peaceful relations with the Horde to restore the strength of the Russian princes and prevent new Tatar campaigns.
New Tatar invasions could be prevented by establishing peaceful relations with the Horde, that is, recognizing its power. Under these conditions, the Russian princes made a certain compromise with the Mongol-Tatars. They recognized the supreme power of the khan and donated part of the feudal rent to the Mongol-Tatar feudal lords. In return, the Russian princes received confidence in the absence of the danger of a new invasion from the Mongols, and they also more firmly established themselves on their princely throne. The princes who opposed the power of the khan risked losing their power, which, with the help of the Mongol khan, could pass to another Russian prince. The Horde khans, in turn, were also interested in an agreement with the local princes, since they received additional weapons to maintain their rule over the masses.
Later, the Mongol-Tatars established a “regime of systematic terror” in Rus'. The slightest disobedience of the Russians caused punitive expeditions of the Mongols. During the second half of the 13th century, they carried out no less than twenty devastating campaigns against Rus', each of which was accompanied by the destruction of cities and villages and the taking of Russian people into captivity.
As a result of Russia's recognition of dependence on the Golden Horde, Rus' continued to live a turbulent, complex, tense life for many years. There was a struggle between the princes for and against the Golden Horde, and frequent strife occurred. Anti-Tatar groups constantly spoke out. Both some Russian princes and Mongol khans opposed the popular mass uprisings. The people experienced constant pressure from the Golden Horde. Rus', already once shocked by the terrible tragedy of the Mongol invasion, now again lived in constant fear of a new destructive offensive of the Golden Horde. Rus' was in such a dependent position on the Golden Horde until the end of the 14th century on September 8, 1380. Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy in the Battle of Kulikovo Field defeated the main forces of the Golden Horde, and dealt a serious blow to its military and political dominance. This was a victory over the Mongol-Tatars, and the final liberation of Rus' from the dependence of the Golden Horde.