A multidimensional study of the results of the USE in 2008 and past years allows us to make a number of generalizations regarding the most common shortcomings of graduates in the exam. The following mistakes can be considered typical when performing examination work in literature in the USE format:
Insufficient knowledge (and in some cases ignorance) of the text of works of art;
Lack of knowledge of the historical-literary and cultural-historical context;
Incorrect or inaccurate use of literary terms and concepts;
Inadequate reading of task formulations;
Inability to construct one's own monologue statement in writing;
Flaws in the speech design of written answers of various sizes.
This methodological problem is described in detail in the manual “Typical Mistakes When Performing Tasks for the Unified State Exam” (authors: S.A. Zinin, L.V. Novikova, O.B. Maryina), which in 2009 will be published by the Russian Word.
Factual Errors
Violation of the requirement of reliability in the transfer of factual material causes factual errors, which are a distortion of the situation depicted in the statement or its individual details.
Factual errors include various kinds of factual inaccuracies: incorrectly indicated years of the writer's life or the time of creation of a work of art, incorrect designations of toponyms, errors in the use of terminology, incorrectly named genres, literary movements and trends, etc. For example, in the works of 2008 there was a typical factual error: the examinees did not remember the name of one of the heroines of the novel by I.A. Goncharov "Oblomov": instead of pointing to Pshenitsyna in the examination papers, one could find, for example, Khozyaykina. Examinees often confuse not only the names of the heroes, but the titles of the works (for example, some of the examinees in 2008 could not accurately indicate the titles of the chapters of M.Yu. Lermontov's novel "A Hero of Our Time").
Actual errors can be divided into gross and non-coarse. Of course, if the examinee claims that the author of "Eugene Onegin" is Lermontov, or calls Tatyana Larina Olga, these are gross factual errors. If, instead of "Princess Mary", the graduate wrote "Princess Mary", then this error can be assessed by the expert as a factual inaccuracy or typo and not taken into account when evaluating the work.
Due to poor knowledge of the text of the work, the examinees incorrectly interpret the actions and words of the characters, events, “putting” into the text a meaning that is missing in it; erroneously or incompletely determine the role of the analyzed fragment in a work of art; incorrectly highlight the structural elements of the text (part, chapter, etc.); distort the plot, etc. For example, in one of the works it was stated that the happiness of Katerina and Boris (A.N. Ostrovsky's play "Thunderstorm") was prevented by Boris's parents. Unfortunately, there are many examples showing the absence of any orientation in the text. One of the tasks based on the play by D.I. Fonvizin's "Undergrowth" required the examinees to list the positive characters of the comedy. A number of students got very unexpected combinations: along with Milon, Pravdin and Starodum, they called (according to the principle “what I remember”) Skotinin, Prostakova, Vralman (even the presence of “speaking” surnames did not help). Ignorance of texts leads to the construction of unsuccessful or false comparisons when performing tasks that require the involvement of a literary context. In one of the variants of the examination paper, the question was asked: “Which poems of Russian poets are in the nature of a lyrical confession and what motives bring them closer to the poem by S.A. Yesenin "Letter to mother" Some examinees followed the path of listing poets at random, of course, not forgetting Pushkin (based on his "comprehensiveness") and got into a mess, since the poet did not touch on the "mother" theme in his lyrics (there is only such an addressee as a nanny).
So, typical actual errors include:
1) distortion of historical and literary facts;
2) distortion of proper names;
3) errors in designating the time and place of the event;
4) errors in the transfer of the sequence of actions, in establishing the causes and consequences of events, etc.
Logic errors
Examinees, who find it difficult to understand the specifics and logic of the question posed, usually demonstrate the inability to logically and reasonably build their own monologue statement, the inability to make generalizations.
Monitoring compliance with the basic laws of logical thinking is an obligatory stage in the analysis of an essay. The best works of examinees are distinguished by clarity of judgments, consistency, consistency of presentation of thoughts and validity of theses and conclusions.
Logical errors, according to the definition of D. E. Rosenthal, are the indistinguishability of “designated concepts that are close in any respect. Often the examinee does not distinguish between cause and effect, part and whole, related phenomena, generic, species and other relationships. (For example: "Since Oblomov is a lazy person, he had Zakhar - his servant").
The variability of the semantic organization of the text is not unlimited: the laws of correct thinking determine the clear development of thought. The logical quality of the information carried by the text is determined by its reliability, accuracy and consistency.
Each thought of the text during repetition should have a definite, stable content (the subject of reasoning should not change arbitrarily in the course of repetition, concepts should not be replaced and mixed up).
Inconsistency of thinking, lack of awareness can lead to the presence in the essay of two opposing judgments about the same subject, submitted by the examinee as true.
The accuracy of the selection of theses, the clarity of their formulation, the constructive clarity of the text contribute to the logical certainty of the presentation, allow you to achieve a consistent development of thought.
The essay must be evidence-based (every true thought must be substantiated by other thoughts, the truth of which has been proven). Subject to this requirement, all thoughts expressed in the text follow one from the other. Thus, in an essay, all thoughts must be internally connected with each other, flow from one another, substantiate one another. The truth of judgments must be confirmed by reliable evidence.
Typical logical errors of examinees include:
1) violation of the sequence of statements,
2) lack of connection between the parts of the sentence,
3) unjustified repetition of a previously expressed thought,
4) fragmentation of a micro-theme by another micro-theme,
5) disproportion of parts of the statement,
6) the absence of the necessary parts of the statement,
7) rearrangement of parts of the statement, etc.
Speech errors
Speech errors should be distinguished from grammatical errors, which consist in erroneous word formation, erroneous formation of forms of parts of speech, in violation of agreement, control, as well as in violation of the connection between the subject and predicate, erroneous construction of a sentence with a participial or participle turnover, homogeneous members, as well as complex sentences, in mixing direct and indirect speech, in missing necessary words and violating sentence boundaries.
(See Evaluation of knowledge, skills and abilities of students in the Russian language. Teacher's guide. - Moscow.: Prosveshchenie, 1986. P. 81).
These errors undoubtedly reduce the quality of the work, and the grossest of them can be classified as speech errors.
Speech and stylistic errors are directly related to the presentation of literary material. Stylistic errors are one of the types of speech errors. Their distinction is important for high quality works. Speech errors of a lexical nature include:
1) the use of the word in an unusual meaning;
2) violation of lexical compatibility;
3) the use of an extra word (pleonasm);
4) the use of a number of words with the same root (tautology);
5) the use of a word (or expression) of a different stylistic coloring;
6) violation of the aspectual-temporal correlation of verb forms;
7) poverty and monotony of syntactic constructions;
8) bad word order (same work, p. 87).
We emphasize once again that stylistic errors are a kind of speech errors. “Stylistic mixtures,” as V.I. Kapinos is a special group of speech defects that destroy the unity of the style of utterance” (same work, p. 86).
Stylistic errors include:
1) the use of other style words and expressions;
2) unsuccessful use of expressive, emotionally colored means;
3) unmotivated use of dialect and colloquial words and expressions;
4) mixing vocabulary from different historical eras.
Maintaining the unity of style is the highest achievement of the writer. Therefore, the stylistic mixtures of V.I. Kapinos rightly proposes to call it stylistic flaws.
What are speech errors? These are any cases of deviation from the language norms that are valid. A person without knowledge of these laws can work normally, live, build communications with others. However, in certain cases, efficiency may suffer. There is a risk of being misunderstood or misunderstood. In these and other cases, it is simply necessary to know what errors exist and how to deal with them.
Correcting speech errors in sentences is not always easy. In order to understand what exactly to pay attention to when composing this or that oral statement or written text, we created this classification. After reading this article, you will find out exactly what shortcomings will need to be corrected when you are faced with such a task.
When classifying speech errors, it would be logical to consider the unit of the linguistic tier as the fundamental criterion - the one, the norms of writing, education, the functioning of which was violated. The following levels are distinguished: words, phrases, sentences and text. A classification of speech errors was created using this division. This will make it easier to remember the different types.
At the word level
The word is the most important unit of language. It reflects the changes taking place in society. Words not only name a phenomenon or object, but also perform an emotionally expressive function. Therefore, when choosing which of them are appropriate in a particular case, one should pay attention to stylistic coloring, meaning, compatibility, and usage, since a violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to a speech error.
Here we can note spelling errors, that is, a violation of the spelling that exists in modern Russian. Their list is known, so we will not dwell on this in detail.
Derivatives at the word level
At the word level, there are also word-formation speech errors, that is, a violation of various norms of word formation in the Russian literary language. These include the following types:
- incorrect direct word formation. An example is the use of the word "hare" instead of the correct version of "hare", or a "thoughtful" (instead of "thoughtful") look, and others.
- speech error associated with incorrect reverse word formation. For example, "loga" (from the word "spoon"). Such use is usually inherent in children of primary school or preschool age.
- another type is a substitutive word formation, which manifests itself in the replacement of one or another morpheme: "hang" (from the word "hang"), "dodge", used instead of "scatter".
- word-composing, that is, the creation of a derivative unit, which cannot be considered as occasional: reviewer, winder.
All these are types of speech errors that are related to word-formation.
Grammar at the word level
There are also other varieties of misuse of words. There are in the Russian language, in addition to word-formation, both grammatical and speech errors. They should be able to distinguish. Grammatical errors are the incorrect formation of various forms, a violation of the properties of the formative system in different parts of speech. These include the following varieties:
- associated with a noun. This may be the formation of the form of the accusative case of some inanimate noun by analogy with an animate one. For example, "She asked for a breeze" (you should use the accusative form "breeze"). Here we also include the reverse situation - the formation of the form of the accusative case in an animate noun in the same way as in an inanimate one. Example: "Two bears harnessed to the sleigh" (correct: "two bears"). In addition, when forming case forms, there may be a change in the gender of the noun: "February blue", "pie with jam". There are times when indeclinable names are inclined: "to ride a meter", "to play the piano". Some of us sometimes form plural forms of nouns, while they only have a singular, and vice versa: "a tray of teas."
- speech errors associated with the adjective. This may be the wrong choice of short or long forms: "The man was very full", "The building was full of people." Here we also include the incorrect formation of degrees of comparison: "Lena was weaker than Luda", "The new ones are becoming more combative."
- another speech error is an error associated with the verb (the forms of its formation). Example: "A person is rushing around the room."
- speech errors associated with participles and gerunds. Examples: "Looking around, a hunter was walking", "Riding in a bus."
- errors related to the incorrect use of forms of pronouns: "I did not want to tear myself away from (the book)," "Their contribution to the common cause" and others.
Lexical at the word level
The next type of errors are lexical, that is, violation of various lexical norms, lexical-semantic compatibility and word usage norms. They are manifested in the fact that compatibility is violated (less often - in a sentence, most often - at the level of a phrase).
This may be the use of an unusual meaning for the word. Such a speech error was made in the sentence "All the walls of the room were covered with panels" (you cannot use the word "covered" in this context). Another example: "Luxurious (that is, living in luxury) was the landowner Troekurov."
It should also be noted here that there is a violation of the lexical-semantic compatibility of a certain word: "The sky was bright" ("to stand" in the meaning of "take place" can only be used in relation to the weather), "The rays of the sun lay on the meadow" (correctly: "illuminated the meadow" ). This type of error primarily affects the verb.
In addition, one can distinguish the attribution of some figurative meaning to a word that does not have it: "The overworked hands of this man claim that he had to work hard."
The use of synonyms can also be incorrect. These are speech errors, examples of which are as follows: “Mayakovsky uses satire in his work” (instead of “uses”), “With his legs wide apart, the boy looks at the football field on which the players are fighting” (correctly - “fight”). Here we highlight the confusion of the meanings of paronyms: “His eyebrows rose surprisingly” (instead of “surprised”), “This work is a typical image of the fantastic genre (that's right -“ sample ”). these lakes live for several days a year.
At the phrase level
When choosing a word, one should take into account not only its meaning in the literary language, but also lexical compatibility. Not all words can be combined. This is determined by their semantics, emotional coloring, stylistic affiliation, grammatical properties, etc. When it is difficult to determine whether certain words can be used together, one should refer to the compatibility dictionary. This will help to avoid errors at the level of phrases, sentences, as well as text.
Errors at this level occur when there is a violation of various syntactic links. For example, agreements: "I want to teach everyone volleyball - this is a good, but at the same time hard sport" (good, hard sport). Controls: "I feel thirst for glory", "I am amazed by his strength", "gain strength". The connection between the predicate and the subject may be broken: "Neither the heat nor the summer is eternal (the singular form is used instead of the plural form "eternal"). All these are types of speech errors at the level of the phrase.
Offer level errors
At this level, we can distinguish syntactic and communicative. Let us consider in detail these speech errors in Russian.
Syntax errors at the sentence level
This may be unjustified parceling, violation of structural boundaries. As an example, the following sentences with speech errors can be cited: "Seryozha went hunting. With dogs", "I see. My dogs are running around the field. They are chasing a hare." Syntax errors include violations in the construction of various homogeneous rows: the choice of different forms in a series of homogeneous members: "She was smoothly combed, ruddy." Another variety is their different structural design, for example, as a subordinate clause and as a secondary sentence: "I wanted to tell you about the case with that person and why he did this (correctly" and about his act ""). There may also be a mixture of indirect and direct speech: “She said that I would definitely fight (here the same subject is meant - “she”, correctly - “will be”). Violation in the subordinate and main clauses of the aspect-temporal correlation of predicates or homogeneous members: "She goes and said", "When the girl was sleeping, she sees a dream." And another variation is a separation from the defining word of the subordinate clause: "One of the works in front of us hangs, which is called" Spring ".
Communication errors at the sentence level
The next section is communicative errors, that is, violations of various norms that regulate the communicative organization of a certain utterance. They are as follows:
- actually communicative (violation of logical stress and word order, leading to the fact that false semantic connections are obtained): "The boys are located on the boat with the keel up."
- logical-communicative (violation of such a side of the statement as conceptual-logical). This may be a substitution of the subject performing the action ("Masha's eyes and facial contours are carried away by the film"); substitution of the object of action ("I like Pushkin's poems, especially the theme of love"); the combination of logically incompatible concepts in one row ("He is always serious, of medium height, his hair is a little curly at the edges, inoffensive"); violation of various genus-species relations ("The tone of angry gatherings is not difficult to predict - angry speeches against the regime, as well as calls to rally ranks"); an error when using causal relationships ("But he (that is, Bazarov) calmed down quickly, since he did not really believe in nihilism").
- constructive-communicative, that is, a violation of the laws of construction of statements. This may be a poor connection or lack of it between parts of the statement: "They live in the village, when I visited him, I saw his blue eyes." This also includes the use of a participial turnover without connection with the subject related to it: "Life should be shown as it is, without worsening or embellishing it." Another type of such errors is the break in participial turnover: "There is little difference between the written questions on the board."
- information-communicative, or semantic-communicative. This type is close to the previous one, however, it differs in that here there is a deterioration in communicative properties not due to incorrect, unsuccessful structuring of the statement, but due to the absence of part of the information in it or its excess. This may be the vagueness of the primary intention of the statement: "We are inextricably linked with the country, with it we have the main blow - a blow to the world." Its incompleteness can also be attributed here: "I myself adore plants, so I am glad to see that our village becomes so unrecognizable in summer." This may be the omission of part of the statement and the necessary words, semantic redundancy (repetitions of words, tautology, pleonasms, duplication of information), etc.
- stylistic errors, that is, a violation of the unity of the functional style, the use (unjustified) of stylistically marked, emotionally colored means. For example, the use of various colloquial words in literary speech, book expressions in reduced and neutral contexts, expressive vocabulary that is unjustified (“A couple of robbers attacked the American embassy”), unsuccessful comparisons, metonymy, metaphors.
At the text level
All errors at this level are communicative in nature. They can be of the following types:
- logical violations are very common errors at the text level. Here we include a violation of the logic of thought, the absence of links between sentences, a violation of various cause-and-effect relationships, operations with an object or subject, a violation of generic relations.
- grammatical violations. This type of error is also common. Here there may be a violation in different sentences of the aspect-temporal correlation of various verb forms, as well as a violation of agreement in the number and gender of the predicate and subject in different sentences.
- information and communication disorders. These include constructive and informational-semantic insufficiency, that is, the omission of part of the statement in the text; constructive and information-semantic redundancy (in other words, an excess of meaning and a heap of structures); discrepancy between the constructive specification of the semantics of statements; unsuccessful use of pronouns as a means of communication; pleonasms, tautologies, repetitions.
Stylistic errors in the text
Style violations existing at the text level can be considered in a similar way. At the same time, it should be noted that we also attribute to them the monotony and poverty of syntactic constructions, since texts like: “The boy was dressed very simply. syntactic violations, but about the inability to express thoughts in a variety of ways. At the level of the text, speech disorders are more complex than at the level of the utterance, although in the latter they are "isomorphic". As a rule, text errors are of a syncretic nature, that is, they incorrectly use the constructive, lexical, logical aspects of a speech unit. This is natural, since the text is more difficult to build. At the same time, it is necessary to keep in our memory previous statements, as well as the semantics of the entire text and the general idea, creating its continuation and completion.
The ability to find flaws in the text, as well as correcting speech errors, are important tasks that every school graduate faces. Indeed, in order to write the exam well in the Russian language, you need to learn how to identify all of the above types of errors and try to avoid them as much as possible.
Even literate people make grammatical mistakes. It is easy to see that some rules of the Russian do not cause difficulties, while the majority regularly stumbles on others. It's not so much that these rules are complicated. Rather, they are simply inconvenient, and some have so many exceptions and peculiarities of application that their presentation takes up a whole page - it seems that they cannot be learned without being an academic.
Consider the most typical mistakes in the Russian language, made not by schoolchildren, but by fairly literate people.
What is considered a grammatical error?
A grammatical error is a violation of a generally accepted established norm. Any errors relating to word formation (for example, the wrong suffix is used for), morphology (for example, the wrong declension of a verb), syntax (for example, inconsistent with the main sentence) are called grammatical errors.
Grammar errors should be distinguished from spelling or speech errors.
The most common mistakes are related to punctuation:
1. Many people are used to highlighting "however" with commas and are very surprised when Word underlines the comma after it as a mistake. Those who are more attentive notice that a comma after "however" is considered an error only when it is at the beginning of a sentence. Indeed, if the meaning of this word is similar to "after all", "nevertheless", and it is in the middle of a sentence, then it is considered introductory, and it must be separated by commas. If it means "but", as, for example, in the sentence "However, she did not understand him" (= "But she did not understand him"), then the comma is not needed.
2. Often there is confusion with the signs "dash" and "colon". Many, faced with which the union is missing, intuitively understand that they need to put a more "solid" sign than a comma. But which one? The rule is actually quite simple. You need to choose the most suitable words instead of the missing union.
If the meaning is suitable for such words as "what", "namely", then you need to put a colon. And also a colon is put if the first sentence ends with words denoting perception and suggesting that they will be followed by a description. These can be words: see, understand, feel, etc.
I remember (that): it was evening, a quiet flute was playing.
He was a complex person (namely): quick-tempered, bilious, sullen.
I recognized him immediately: (because) he was wearing one yellow shoe.
I see: a barge is sailing, on it is a barefoot boy, tanned, unfamiliar, but sparkling with a smile and in the next second he is waving his hand to me.
If you can insert words such as "a", "but", "and", "as if", "this", "therefore", "as if", then a dash should be used.
He took a wide step (and) - his pants were torn.
Across the sea, a heifer (this) is a half, but a ruble is transported.
The wind blew - (therefore) groaned, the old forest creaked.
A dash is also used when the words "if" or "when" can be added at the beginning of a sentence.
(When) I thought about Grisha - he is right there.
(If) I get a fee - let's go to the sea!
Grammatical errors related to morphology
Difficulties cause "nn" in suffixes (although everyone remembers glass, tin, wooden), it is especially difficult to deal with double "n" in adverbs. And also many are confused by the use of particles not / neither. Quite a few educated people, imperceptibly for themselves, are mistaken in management. Which is correct, "control over" or "control over"? The confusion between the two is another popular grammatical error. Example:
- control over the quality of execution;
- control over the execution of the order;
- water level control.
Which option is correct? All. One or another type of control in this case is selected depending on the characteristics of the subsequent word. For example, "control over" is used before verbal nouns (execute - execution). There are other subtleties.
Not all common grammatical errors are mentioned in this article. It is quite possible to learn not to commit them by studying the rules. We hope that we were able to demonstrate that learning the secrets of the native language is an exciting business, and sometimes a superficial acquaintance with the rule is enough to realize all its logic and expediency. We also hope that you have noticed the variations in the use of the rules described above in the article itself, and not just under the "examples" headings.
Classification of errors corrected and taken into account when evaluating a student's work
Grammatical errors(G) - these are errors in the structure of a language unit: words, phrases or sentences, i.e. violation of any grammatical norm - word-formation, morphological, syntactic.
No. p / p | Error type | Examples |
Wrong word formation. Erroneous formation of forms of a noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb (personal forms of verbs, real and passive participles, gerunds). | Nobility, a miracle of technology, underline, to laugh at; more interesting, prettier; with five hundred rubles; juggled with both hands, their pathos, there is nothing around him; How many moral principles we have lost because of the loss of spirituality; them moves feeling of compassion; streams of water, stackable down, startled the author of the text; above onto the stage, the singers bowed. |
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Violation of the norms of coordination | I am familiar with a group of guys, seriously captivating imitate jazz. |
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Violation of the norms of management | Need to make nature more beautiful. Everyone marveled at him by force. |
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Violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate or the way the predicate is expressed | The main thing that I now want to pay attention to isthe artistic side of the work. He wrote a book that epic. Everyone was happy and happy funny. |
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Errors in constructing sentences with homogeneous members | The country loved and was proud of the poet. In my essay, I wanted to sayabout the meaning of sport and why I love it. |
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Errors in the construction of sentences with adverbial turnover | Reading the text , there is such a feeling of empathy. |
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Errors in constructing a sentence with participial turnover | The narrow path was coveredfailing snow underfoot. |
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Errors in the construction of a complex sentence | This book taught me to appreciate and respect friends,which I read as a child. It seemed to the man that this is a dream. |
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Mixing direct and indirect speech | ||
G10 | Violation of supply boundaries | He was not accepted into the basketball team. Because he was short. |
G11 | Violation of the types of temporal correlation of verb forms | freezes for a moment the heart and suddenly knocks again. |
G12 | Skipping a sentence member (ellipsis) | At the meeting there was received (?) spend Saturday. |
G13 | Errors associated with the use of particles: detaching a particle from the component of the sentence to which it refers | It would be nice if the picture was would artist's signature. In the text Total two problems emerge. |
Speech errors (P)- these are errors not in the construction of a sentence, not in the structure of a language unit, but in its use, most often in the use of a word, that is, a violation of lexical norms. These are pleonasm, tautology, speech clichés, inappropriate use of colloquial vocabulary, dialectisms, jargon; expressive means, non-distinguishing of paronyms. Errors in the use of homonyms, antonyms, synonyms, ambiguity not eliminated by the context.
No. p / p | Error type | Examples |
The use of a word in an unusual sense | We were shocked great acting by the actors. Thanks to fire, the forest burned down. |
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Unjustified use of dialect and colloquial words | These people always succeed cheat others . Oblomov did nothing and spent whole days played the fool. |
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Bad use of pronouns | The text was written by V. Belov. He refers to the artistic style; I immediately had a picture in your imagination. |
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The use of words of a different stylistic coloring; mixing vocabulary from different eras; inappropriate use of stationery, expressive, emotionally colored words, outdated vocabulary, jargon, inappropriate use of phraseological units | As planned the author, the hero wins; Molchalin works Famusov's secretary; In the novel by A.S. Pushkin take place lyrical digressions; Author every now and then resorts to the use of metaphors and personifications.If I were there, then for such an attitude towards my mother, I would I would give a cupcake in the mouth; Zoshchenko don't put your finger in your mouthjust to make the reader laugh. |
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Indistinguishability of shades of meaning introduced into the word by prefix and suffix | In such cases, I look in the dictionary. |
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The indistinguishability of paronyms,synonymous words;errors in the use of antonyms when constructing an antithesis; destruction of the figurative meaning of a phraseological unit in an unsuccessfully organized context | Effective measures were taken; The name of this poet is familiar in many countries; The third part of the text is not cheerful, but alsonot a major motivemakes us think; the record hasn't said its word yetlast word. |
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Violation of lexical compatibility | ||
Use of superfluous words, including pleonasm | Young youth; very lovely. |
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The use of words near or close to the same root (tautology) | In that the story is being toldabout real events. |
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P10 | Unjustified repetition of a word | Hero story does not think about his act. Hero does not even understand the full depth of what he did. |
P11 | Poverty and monotony of syntactic constructions | When the writer came to the editoraccepted by the editor-in-chief.When they talked, the writer went to the hotel. |
R12 | Use of superfluous words, lexical redundancy | Then about to make you smile, about it our bookstore will take care. |
Logical errors (L).Logical errors are associated with a violation of the logical correctness of speech. They arise as a result of a violation of the laws of logic, committed both within a single sentence, judgment, and at the level of the whole text.
No. p / p | Error type | Examples |
Comparison (opposition) of two logically heterogeneous (different in volume and content) concepts in a sentence, text | At the lesson were presentdirector, librarian, as well as Anna Petrovna Ivanova and Zoya Ivanovna Petrova; He leaned back on the battery; For good study and parenting parents students received letters of thanks from the school administration. |
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Violation of causal relationships | In recent years lots of done to modernize education, but teachers work in the old way, because issues of modernization of education are being addressed weakly . |
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Skipping a link in an explanation, a "logical leap". | It is hardly possible to block the flow of people through our yard. [?] And how you want the yard to be an ornament of both the school and the village. |
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Rearrangement of parts of the text (if it is not due to the task for the essay or presentation) | It's time to return this word to its true meaning! Honor... But how to do it? |
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Unjustified substitution of the person from whom the narration is being conducted (for example, first from the first, then from the third person) | ||
Comparison of logically disparate concepts | Syntax encyclopedia articles is excellent from other scientific articles. |
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Composition-text errors | ||
Unsuccessful start | The text begins with a sentence containing an indication of the previous context, which is absent in the text itself, by the presence of demonstrative word forms in the first sentence, for example: В this text, the author... |
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Mistakes in the main body | A) Convergence of relatively distant thoughts in one sentence. b) Lack of consistency in presentation; incoherence and violation of the order of sentences. c) The use of sentences of different types in structure, leading to difficulty in understanding the meaning. |
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Unfortunate ending | Duplicate output,unjustified repetition of an earlier thought. |
Factual Errors(F) - a kind of non-linguistic errors, which consists in the fact that the writer cites facts that contradict reality, gives incorrect information about the actual circumstances, both related and not related to the analyzed text (background knowledge)
No. p / p | Error type | Examples |
Distortion of the content of a literary work, misinterpretation, poor choice of examples | Bazarov was a nihilist and thereforekilled an old woman with an ax; Lensky returned to his estate from England; Happiness for Oblomov wasloneliness and indifference. |
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Inaccuracy in the quote. Lack of reference to the author of the quote. Misnamed citation author. | The book means a lot to me, because even Lenin said: “Live and learn!» |
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Ignorance of historical and other facts, including temporary displacement. | Great Patriotic War of 1812; The capital of the USA is New York. |
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Inaccuracies in the names, surnames, nicknames of literary heroes. Distortions in the names of literary works, their genres, an error in indicating the author. | Turgenev; "Taras and Bulba"; in Turgenev's stories"Crime and Punishment". |
Ethical errors(Uh) - Violation of the system of values and rules of ethics:statements that degrade human dignity, expressing an arrogant and cynical attitude towards the human person, hostility, manifestations of verbal aggression, slang words and turns.
No. p / p | Error type | Examples |
Speech incorrectness. Manifestation of verbal aggression: rude, offensive statement; verbal expression of negative emotions, feelings or intentions in a form unacceptable in a given speech situation; threat, rude demand, accusation, mockery; the use of swear words, vulgarisms, jargon, slang; statements that degrade human dignity, expressing an arrogant and cynical attitude towards the human person | This text is pissing me off. ; Need to be completely crazy to read books today; Why the school curriculum forces you to read everything junk what is called a classic? Mikhalkov in his repertoire! He writes children's books, and therefore requires that they read it in childhood. This is real PR! There is nothingfool people's brainsoutdated truths. |
SPELLING, PUNCTATION, GRAPHIC ERRORS
errors are taken into account
- on the learned rules;
- non-rough (two non-rough ones count as one):
- in exceptions to the rules;
- in writing a capital letter in compound proper names;
- in cases of separate and continuous spelling, not with adjectives and participles acting as a predicate;
- in writing and and s after prefixes;
- in difficult cases of distinction not and neither (Where did he go! Wherever he turned, no one could give him an answer. Nobody else…; none other than…; nothing else…; nothing more than… and etc.);
- in cases where one punctuation mark is replaced by another;
- in the omission of one of the combined punctuation marks or in violation of their sequence;
- recurring (counts as one mistake repeatin the same word or in the root of cognate words);
- the same type ( the first three errors of the same type are counted as one error,
each nextsuch an error is taken into account asindependent):
errors per rule, if the conditions for choosing the correct spelling are contained in the grammatical (in the army, in the grove; prick, fight) and phonetic (pie, cricket) features of the given word.
Not considered the sameerrors on such a rule, in which, in order to find out the correct spelling of one word, it is required to choose another (reference) word or its form (water - water, mouth - mouth, sad - sad, sharp - sharp).
The concept of similar errors does not apply to punctuation errors.
Errors (two or more) in one unchecked word are counted as one error.
When testing literacy (K7-K8) errors are not taken into account
- spelling:
- in the transfer of words;
- e/e letters after consonants in foreign words ( racket, plein air ) and after vowels in proper names ( Marietta);
- uppercase / lowercase letters
- in names associated with religion: M (m) carnival, P (r) identity, B (b) og.
- with the figurative use of proper names (Oblomovs and Oblomovs).
- in proper names of non-Russian origin; spelling of surnames with first parts don, van, sept... ( Don Pedro and Don Quixote).
- continuous / hyphen / separate spelling
- in compound nouns without a connecting vowel (mostly borrowings), not regulated by rules and not included in the minimum dictionary (lend-lease, kebab, know-how, papier-mâché, tumbleweed, walk-city paperweight, but beef stroganoff, head waiter, sedan chair, price list);
- to rules that are not included in the school curriculum (for example, the rule of continuous / separate writing of adverbial units / adverbs with a prefix / preposition, for example:to spill, to scold behind the eyes, to match, on the run, in installments, to back down, to a curiosity, to the touch, in the wings, to put on the butt(cf. current spellingindiscriminately, scattered);
- punctuation errors:
- a dash in an incomplete sentence;
- isolation of inconsistent definitions related to common nouns;
- commas with restrictive-excretory revolutions;
- distinguishing between homonymous particles and interjections and, accordingly, not highlighting or highlighting them with commas;
- in the transfer of author's punctuation;
- graphic errors(means of writing a language, fixing the relationship between the letters in writing and the sounds of oral speech); various techniques for reducing words, the use of spaces between words, various underlining and font selections;
- typos and misprints:
Distortion of the sound image of the word ( murmuring instead of working, memlya instead of earth); .
Omissions of letters (the whole novel costs on this conflict;
Permutations of letters (new names products) ;
Replacing some alphabetic characters with others (legendary Battle of the Ice);
Adding extra letters ( in any, yes the most difficult conditions).
Larisa Fominykh
Grammar or speech error?
The need to distinguish between grammatical and speech errors in the creative work of students is dictated by existing norms. The first type of errors is an integral part of the literacy assessment, the second (as one of the components) - for the content. During the verification of USE essays (part C), they must also be distinguished. However, in practice, there are often difficulties in their differentiation. The purpose of this note is to help the teacher in determining the nature of these shortcomings.
A grammatical error is a violation of the structure of a language unit: incorrect word formation (there is no such word in the language); incorrect formation of word forms; errors in the construction of phrases and sentences. Violations of this kind account for about 31%.
A grammatical error, depending on its nature, can be made in a word, in a phrase or in a sentence. It doesn't require context to discover it. Unlike spelling or punctuation, a grammatical error can be detected by ear, and not only in a written text, while a spelling error can only be detected in writing.
Consider main types of grammatical errors.
I. Erroneous word formation: cake; liked; chewing gum; showed indifference.
II. Errors in the formation of forms of different parts of speech:
1) nouns (gender; nominative and genitive plural forms; declension of indeclinable nouns): where is the second shoe? my birthday; our engineer; real friendships are few; ride on ponies;
2) adjectives (double comparative or superlative): less successful; the most beautiful fountain; more attractive;
3) numerals (incorrect formation of case forms of cardinal numbers; errors in the use of ordinal and collective numbers): over eight hundred meters; seven skiers; on page thirty-eight;
4) pronouns: how many hours of class? with their neighbors; evon book;
5) verbs: lay down walls; want to eat; erase from the board; chishet five times in a row; slam the door; drive straight; tomorrow I will tidy up (wash off); this also includes a violation of the species-temporal correlation of verb forms in the sentence: When December comes, the weather changes dramatically.
6) participles (they do not have a form of the future tense; they are not used with a particle by; you cannot mix recurrent and irrevocable forms): everyone who writes an essay will receive a credit; there is not a single book that would attract our attention; studied all available information; troops fighting the enemy;
7) gerunds: walked, looking around; applying ointment to the wound; having bought a service;
Sh. Syntax errors- violations in the construction of phrases and sentences:
1) errors in management: describes about the battle; thirst for power; I can't wait until I leave
2) in agreement: young people are eager to learn; people believe that life will not get better; with a group of tourists who are fond of rafting on mountain rivers;
4) in the construction of sentences with homogeneous members:
a) the member of the sentence and the subordinate part are used as homogeneous: I want to show the meaning of sport and why I love it;
b) with two verb-predicates there is a common object that cannot be used in this form with one of them: We remember and admire the exploits of heroes;
c) inaccurate use of double union: As the old people as well as the children were the first to be evacuated(it is necessary: both ..., and ...). I not only prepared on my own, but also attended an elective(not only but…);
5) in the use of participial phrases: There is little difference between the topics written on the board;
6) participial phrases: Skating on the rink, my legs hurt. And then, preparing for the exams, it was as if he had been replaced.
7) in the construction of complex sentences (distortion of conjunctions; the use of two subordinating conjunctions at the same time; "stringing" the same type of subordinate clauses): The bell rang, you need to go home. Everyone began to praise the performers as if they were real artists. He said what he did not know about this case. I heard that you asked me to tell you that you will come soon.
8) violation of the boundaries of proposals: 1. When the wind ran through. And the clouds quickly ran across the sky. 2. I poured a hedgehog of milk into a saucer. And put the hedgehog in the box.
However, one should be aware of the phenomenon of parcelling, when the author deliberately divides the sentence to give it more expressiveness or to highlight the thought: The very thought of betrayal makes me uncomfortable. Because it defies my beliefs.
9) mixing direct and indirect speech: A.S. Pushkin writes that I aroused good feelings with my lyre.
The main types of speech errors
Speech errors- These are errors associated with violation of the requirements of correct speech. The reason for them is the poverty of the students' vocabulary, inexpressiveness of speech, indistinguishability of paronyms, non-compliance with the lexical compatibility of words, speech stamps, etc. From the point of view of grammar, there are no violations, all forms of words, syntactic constructions correspond to the language norm, however, in general, the text of the work indicates the poverty of the student's speech .
1) The use of words in an unusual meaning for them: The pathos of his work is laughter - the writer's formidable weapon. Monologue of wind and tree...
2) tautology (repetition of single-root words in one sentence): The enemy was getting closer and closer.The young district of the city was named after the name of the street. The writer vividly describes the events of the Great Patriotic War.
It should be noted that the use of single-root words in one sentence may be quite acceptable. In the Russian folk language, there are a number of expressions like: all sorts of things, jokes, do their job, roar roaring, howling howling, moaning with a groan. Either stand standing, or sit sitting, or lie down lying down. (proverb)
Many of them have already become phraseological units or are approaching them. In works of art, the author may consciously resort to tautology:
Soon the fairy tale tells, but not soon the deed is done. (A.S. Pushkin)
The smoke goes from the pipes to the chimney. (A.S. Pushkin)
I wish you and myself more pride, less pride. (K. Vanshenkin)
3) pleonasm (hidden tautology): the main leitmotif of his work; we invite you to meet the New Year holidays away from the cold, blizzards and cold weather; specific feature of creativity; colleagues;
4) mixing of paronyms: representatives of high society led a festive life; after a quarrel between neighbors, hostile relations were established; this dish is very filling;
5) violation of lexical compatibility: around gloating hunger, devastation; the standard of living of the population has deteriorated;
7) speech stamps: now let's talk about heating; in the summer we like to relax on the sea; the exam can be held at the end of the development of the subject;
8) dialect, vernacular, slang words: he is used to living for free; she looked great; in the image of Khlestakov, Gogol showed a terrible impudent person who shamelessly lies and grabs a bribe;
9) mixing vocabulary from different historical eras: Marya Kirillovna and the prince went to the registry office to get married. Liza served as a housekeeper for Famusov;
10) unjustified repetition of the same words in adjacent sentences (usually these are verbs of movement, being, speaking): Boy was dressed in a burnt padded jacket. Vatnik was darned roughly. And were he has worn trousers on. A soldier's boots were almost new.
Such a defect should be distinguished from repetition as a stylistic device, which is actively used by poets and writers:
Beauty does not go in vain.
Do not grow even in a black year
Maple in vain, and willow in vain,
And a vain flower on the pond. (Yu. Moritz)
Hazy noon breathes lazily,
The river flows lazily.
And in the fiery and pure firmament
Clouds drift lazily. (F. Tyutchev)
11) the unsuccessful use of personal and demonstrative pronouns as a means of connecting sentences (as a result of which ambiguity is created): Don't lend the company car to your wife. She is may get into an accident. We watched the film in the new cinema. From him we have a good impression.
12) bad word order: Dobrolyubov called merchants from Ostrovsky's plays representatives of the "dark kingdom". Prelude and nocturne for Scriabin's left hand were performed by Margarita Fedorova.
To make it easier to use the classification of these errors, we will present them in an abbreviated form in the table:
| Grammatical errors | Speech errors |
| 1) erroneous word formation: pleasure to live; wakefulness; sign for life; | 1) the use of the word in an unusual meaning: In an allergic form, Gorky tells us about Petrel. |
| 2) errors in the formation of word forms: no places; more strict; five hundred rubles; wait; theirs; | 2) violation of lexical compatibility: cheap prices; he constantly replenishes his horizons; |
| 3) violation of the types of temporal correlation of verbs: sat at the table and does not talk to me; | 3) tautology: Everyone was in a businesslike mood. The increase in crime has increased by five percent. |
| 4) errors in coordination and management: from the part of the novel I read; | 4) pleonasm: colleagues; feathered birds; |
| 5) violation of agreement between the subject and the predicate: Mankind is fighting for peace. Young people on the bus push and make noise. | 5) unjustified repetitions of the word in adjacent sentences: The guys woke up early. The guys decided to go to the forest. The guys went into the forest along the field road. |
| 6) errors in the use of participial and adverbial phrases: While sledding, I got a headache. Reading books makes life more interesting. | 6) Unfortunate use of personal and demonstrative pronouns, creating ambiguity: The girl has a hat on her head. She looks flirty. |
| 7) errors in the construction of complex sentences: Before leaving, we went to the river. | 7) the use of a word of a different stylistic coloring: To poison Lensky, Onegin courts Olga. |
| 8) mixing direct and indirect speech: The governor told the oil workers that we appreciate your contribution to the region's economy. | 8) mixing vocabulary from different historical eras: Gerasim returned to the village and began to work on the collective farm. |
Training tasks
1. Find grammatical errors in sentences and determine their type.
1. The logs were heavy, so they were put on sticks and carried.
2. The accident occurred at the five hundred and eleventh kilometer from Moscow.
3. The management of the organization hopes that in this way they can stop the growth of the queue in kindergartens.
4. And we made a new swing in our yard!
5. Writing a review, Iskander used a rhetorical question.
6. These plans need and deserve all support.
7. But the father answered that you are still small for such work. Chatsky's ardent speeches are addressed to the nobility, who do not want and are even afraid of change.
8. Now the methods of water purification are becoming more perfect.
9. The spring sun shines brightly, and the birds sang.
10. Having risen to our floor, the door of our apartment was open.
11. From a distance, floating logs on the water were visible.
12. The sons of Taras dismounted from their horses, who studied in the Kyiv bursa.
2. Find speech errors, determine their type.
1. We foresaw all the difficulties of the campaign in advance.
2. Khlestakov sat in the britzka and shouted: “Drive, my dear, to the airport!”