Thus, a person begins to think under the influence of certain needs, and in the course of his mental activity, increasingly deeper and stronger cognitive needs arise and develop.
Thinking is purposeful. The need for thinking arises primarily when, in the course of life and practice, a new goal, a new problem, new circumstances appear before a person.
government and operating conditions. For example, this happens when a doctor is faced with some new, still unknown disease and tries to find and use new methods of treating it. By its very essence, thinking is necessary only in those situations in which these new goals arise, and the old, previous means and methods of activity are insufficient (although necessary) to achieve them. Such situations are called problematic. With the help of mental activity, originating in a problem situation, it is possible to create, discover, find, and invent new ways and means of achieving goals and satisfying needs.
Thinking is the search and discovery of something new. In those cases where you can get by with old, already known methods of action, previous knowledge and skills, a problem situation does not arise and therefore thinking is simply not required. For example, a second grade student is no longer forced to think by a question like: “How much is 2 x 2?” To answer such questions, only the old knowledge that this child already has is sufficient.
Individual characteristics of thinking in different people are manifested primarily in the fact that they have different relationships between different and complementary types and forms of mental activity (visual-figurative, visual-effective and abstract thinking). Individual characteristics of thinking also include other qualities of cognitive activity: independence, flexibility, speed of thought.
Independence of thinking is manifested primarily in the ability to see and pose a new question, a new problem and then solve them on one’s own. The creative nature of thinking is clearly expressed precisely in such independence.
Flexibility of thinking lies in the ability to change the initially planned path (plan) for solving problems if it does not satisfy the conditions of the problem that are gradually identified in the course of its solution and which could not be taken into account from the very beginning.
Speed of thought is especially necessary in cases where a person is required to make certain decisions in a very short time (for example, during a battle, an accident). But schoolchildren also need it. Thus, some good students, even in high school, when they are called to the board to solve a problem that is new to them, become embarrassed and lost. These negative emotions inhibit their thinking; thought begins to work very slowly and often unsuccessfully, although in a calm environment (at home or at a desk, not at the blackboard), the same schoolchildren quickly and well solve similar and even more difficult problems. This sharp slowdown in thought under the influence of inhibiting emotions and feelings often manifests itself during exams. For other schoolchildren, on the contrary, general excitement and anxiety during an exam do not slow down, but stimulate and speed up thinking. Then they can achieve better results than in a normal, calm environment.
These individual characteristics of some students must be specifically taken into account in order to correctly assess their mental abilities and knowledge.
All of the listed and many other qualities of thinking are closely related to its main quality, or attribute. The most important feature of any thinking - regardless of its individual individual characteristics - is the ability to highlight the essential, to independently come to ever new generalizations. When a person thinks, he is not limited to stating this or that individual fact or event, even bright, interesting, new and unexpected. Thinking necessarily goes further, delving into the essence of a given phenomenon and discovering the general law of development of all more or less homogeneous phenomena, no matter how outwardly they differ from each other.
Literature
1. Psychology. Dictionary/Under general. ed. A.V. Petrovsky. - M.: Politizdat, 1990. - 494 p.
2. Nemov R.S. Psychology. Textbook for higher students ped. textbook establishments. In 3 books. Book 1. M.: Education, 1995. - 576 p.
3. Reader on general psychology: psychology of thinking. - M 1981.
4. Piaget J. Selected psychological works. Psychology of intelligence. Genesis of number in a child. Logic and psychology. - M., 1969.
5. Mukhina V.S. Six year old child at school. -M., 1986
6. Mukhina V.S. Child psychology: Textbook. for pedagogical students Institute/Ed. L.A. Wenger. - M.: Enlightenment. 1985. - 272 p.
7. Development of thinking and mental development of a preschooler / Ed. N.N. Poddyakova, A.F. Govorkova. - M.: Pedagogy, 1985. - 200 p.
The set of specific psychological traits, peculiarities of perception of the world and forms of reactions to it, which have become more or less characteristic of a particular socio-ethnic community, is called national character.
National character is, first of all, a certain set of emotional and sensory manifestations, expressed, first of all, in emotions, feelings and moods, in ways of emotional and sensory exploration of the world, as well as in the speed and intensity of reactions to current events. National character, like all socio-psychic phenomena, is manifested in the way of behavior, way of thinking, mindset, customs, traditions, tastes, etc. of large groups of people and much less in individual individuals. National character is most clearly manifested in national temperament, for example, distinguishing the northern peoples of Russia from the Caucasian peoples.
The specific features of national character are to some extent a condensed expression, passed through the prism of the material and spiritual life process, an expression of the social and natural conditions of the existence of the nation, as well as the historical interaction of the nation with other conditions. The decisive determinant of national character should be sought in the social conditions of a nation's existence. From this it follows, firstly, that national character is not immutable; it is constantly changing with the development of material conditions of life and the social life process; secondly, that the national character of a nation always combines universal human traits characteristic of many nations with specific traits that are the result of specific natural and social conditions of life and the historical fate of a given nation. Many essential national character traits of one nation are also found in one form or another in other nations. It is difficult to find any special trait that could be considered exclusively belonging to only one nation. And attributing predominantly positive traits to one’s own nation, and predominantly negative traits to other nations, is a product of national prejudices, ethnocentrism, autostereotypes and nationalism.
All nations, in the course of their historical development, acquire positive national character traits that correspond to the needs of their lives and at the same time mean the enrichment of world culture. But at the same time, all peoples, under the influence of certain conditions, develop negative aspects of character that are in one form or another in conflict with public ideas. Depending on specific historical conditions and the historical experience of peoples, the relationship between various national components of character may be different, and when considering it as a whole and over the long term, it is necessary to approach it differentiatedly, taking into account differences in the properties of a nation, which can be both positive, conducive to social and cultural progress, as well as negative ones that hinder it. In principle, there is no spiritual hierarchy, no hierarchy of nations by character, no “higher” and “lower” nations.
The concept of “national character” is not theoretical-analytical in origin, but descriptive. It was first used by travelers, followed by geographers and ethnographers to designate specific features of behavior and lifestyle of different nations and peoples. At the same time, different authors had different things in mind. Therefore, a synthetic, generalized interpretation of national character is obviously combined and therefore insufficiently holistic. It should also be borne in mind that a nation is not an absolute, but a relative community of character, since individual members of a nation, along with traits common to the entire nation, also have individual traits that distinguish them from each other.
National character has long been the subject of scientific research. The first serious attempts were made within the framework of the established in the mid-19th century. in Germany, the school of psychology of peoples (W. Wundt, M. Lazarus, H. Steinthal, etc.). The main ideas of this school were that the main force of history is the people, or the “spirit of the whole,” expressing itself in art, religion, languages, myths, customs, etc., as a whole, in the character of the people, or national character. American ethnopsychological school in the middle of the 20th century. (A. Kardiner, R.F. Benedict, M. Mead, R. Merton, R. Lipton, etc.) when constructing a number of concepts of national character, proceeded from the existence of specific national characters in different ethnic groups, manifested in stable psychological traits of an individual and affecting “cultural behavior”.
At present, it is not possible to identify any holistic direction in the study of national character. His research is conducted in different contexts and from different conceptual and theoretical positions. Some authors are still trying to find given, almost directly individually inherited, traits of national character that divide humanity into strictly fixed and opposing national-ethnic groups. Other scientists insist that the concept of “national character” was and remains a fiction, a myth, since national character is elusive. However, although the concept of “national character” has a number of certain difficulties in empirical study, nevertheless, those explosive manifestations of national character that are especially evident in extreme situations remain an undeniable reality.
Test questions and assignments
1. What is the structure of ethnic identity?
2. How is ethnic identity formed and developed?
3. Expand the content of the concepts “ethnic identification” and “ethnic self-identification”.
4. What types of ethnic identity can be distinguished?
5. What does ethnopsychology study and what practical significance does it have?
6. What are the content and structure of the concepts “national identity” and “national consciousness”?
7. What is national character?
8. Reveal the nature and manifestations of ethnic stereotypes.
9. How and why do ethnic autostereotypes arise?
10. What are ethnic attitudes and prejudices?
11. Try to determine the national character of “your” ethnic group.
12. Describe the psychological characteristics of ethnic groups well known to you.
Literature
1. Belik A.A. Psychological anthropology: history and theory. - M., 1993. . .
2. Boronoev A.0., Pavlenko V.N. Ethnic psychology. - St. Petersburg, 1994.
3. Wundt V. Problems of the psychology of peoples. - M., 1912.
4. Lebedeva I. Introduction to ethnic and cross-cultural psychology. - M., 1999.
5. Lebon G. Psychology of peoples and masses. - M., 1995.
6. Platonov Yu.P., Pochebut L.G. Ethnic social psychology. - St. Petersburg, 1993.
7. Soldatova G.U. Psychology of interethnic tension. - M., 1998.
8. Tavadov G.T. Ethnology. Dictionary-reference book. - M., 1998.
9. Tokarev S.A. Ethnopsychological direction in American ethnography. - M., 1978.
10. Shpet G.G. Introduction to ethnic psychology. - M., 1996.
11. Ethnic psychology and society. - M., 1997.
12. Ethnic stereotypes of behavior. - L., 1985.
13. Ethnic stereotypes of male and female behavior. - St. Petersburg,
1991.
13. Shikhirev P. Modern social psychology. - M., 2000.
Under the influence, in power, under the authority Dictionary of Russian synonyms. under the influence of adverb, number of synonyms: 5 in power (3) ... Synonym dictionary
Phages, like microorganisms, are able to change all their properties: the shape and size of negative colonies, the spectrum of lytic action, the ability to adsorb on a microbial cell, resistance to external influences, antigenic properties.... ... Biological encyclopedia
A woman under influence… Wikipedia
INVALIDITY OF A TRANSACTION PERFORMED UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF MISCONCEPTION- recognition of a void transaction made under the influence of a misconception of significant significance. Of significant importance is the misconception regarding the nature of the transaction or identity or such qualities of its subject matter that significantly reduce... ... Large economic dictionary
Cases of revision of government decisions under the influence of public opinion- On January 28, 1993, the Government of the Russian Federation issued a decree on measures to ensure road safety, which prohibited from July 1, 1993 the registration of vehicles with right-hand drive, and from January 1, 1995... ... Encyclopedia of Newsmakers
Animation created under the influence of anime, or amerime (English amerime), or pseudo-anime, is usually called animation products created outside of Japan, but nevertheless using the style of manga. Amerime usually uses... ... Wikipedia
Adj., number of synonyms: 1 impulsive (5) ASIS Dictionary of Synonyms. V.N. Trishin. 2013… Synonym dictionary
Adj., number of synonyms: 2 was a shadow (10) became a shadow (3) ASIS Dictionary of Synonyms. V.N. Trishin. 2013… Synonym dictionary
Dubois-Raymond's law (1) about muscle contraction under the influence of electric current- The severity of muscle contraction under the influence of electric current does not depend on its absolute strength, but on the amplitude and frequency of its oscillations, that is, muscle excitation is a function of changes in current density over time. Installed in 1845... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy
acting under the influence of mismatch- - [Ya.N.Luginsky, M.S.Fezi Zhilinskaya, Yu.S.Kabirov. English-Russian dictionary of electrical engineering and power engineering, Moscow, 1999] Topics of electrical engineering, basic concepts EN error activated ... Technical Translator's Guide
Books
- , Seidelman F.R. Category: Ecology Publisher: Kvarta, Manufacturer: Quart,
- Genesis and degradation of chernozems in European Russia under the influence of waterlogging: methods of protection and reclamation, Zaidelman F.R. , Over the last decades of the 20th century, in the forest-steppe and steppe zones of European Russia, a real threat to agriculture and the ecology of the habitat of biota (including humans)… Category: Ecology Series: Publisher:
“Hello, I say, to the Orthodox Tsar,
on your throne be visible to the world
By the wisdom of King Solomon,
Macedon is once again famous for its strength.”
Simeon of Polotsk. "Good Ghusl"
“The king has died. Long live the king!”
On February 8, 1676, Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov died. Two years earlier, in his “New Year’s address” on Red Square, Quietest declared Tsarevich Fyodor heir to the throne. Nevertheless, he left the family in a dangerous situation that “foreshadowed great unrest.” The fact is that at court there were two influential clans fighting for power. On the one hand, the relatives of Alexei’s first wife, Maria Ilyinichna Miloslavskaya, who gave birth to the heir to the throne Fedor, Ivan, six daughters, including the “man-smart” Sophia... On the other hand, the relatives of the Quietest second wife, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, and her teacher boyar Matveev. According to the testimony of the Polish chronicler, Artamon Sergeevich Matveev, after the death of Alexei, bribed the archers and persuaded the boyars to recognize four-year-old Peter as sovereign. However, the boyars broke down the doors to the chambers, “they took Theodore in their arms, because he could not walk himself: his legs were swollen, they carried him, put him on the throne and immediately began to approach his hand, congratulating him on the throne.”
Vertograd multicolor
Despite his illness, Fyodor Alekseevich loved horseback riding. The one-year-old heir was given a toy skate, and from then on horses became a real passion. Having ascended the throne, he delved into all the details of horse breeding and did not hesitate to exchange horses even with foreign ambassadors! Fedor's other love was archery. Often there were competitions in target shooting or war games, for example, a shootout across the Crimean Ford on the Moscow River.
Fyodor Alekseevich received, at that time, an excellent education. The teacher of the royal children was the poet and theologian Simeon of Polotsk. And although he was called a “supervisor” and a “hound-writer,” Simeon Sityanovich was a good teacher who knew how to “sweeten science” and could make his pupils eager to learn. He translated the acts of the Roman emperors, the events of the Old and New Testaments into poetry, wrote poetic moral teachings, and presented them to his students in such a digestible form. Several thousand similar “pedagogical” verses of Simeon of Polotsk were included in the collection “Vertograd of many colors.”
Thanks to his teacher, Fyodor Alekseevich also “had great art in poetry and composed very fair verses,” he helped Polotsky in the poetic transcription of the Psalter; it is believed that the translation of Psalms 132 and 145 belongs to Fyodor. The young tsar knew Polish, Greek, and partly Latin, loved painting, music, he transformed the court chapel and approved the transition from the old hook notes to European linear musical notation. Fyodor Alekseevich was very interested in architecture, the Small Palace in the Kremlin and the Alekseevskaya Church of the Chudov Monastery were built according to his drawings, and sewerage in the Kremlin was first installed under Fyodor.
Our quietness
Almost all historians of the 19th century believed that Fyodor Alekseevich, due to his age and illness, ruled “only nominally,” and was constantly under the influence of one or another court group. However, the crowned young man, who on solemn occasions called himself “our quietness,” was “gifted with royal constancy,” his political course was stable and consistent, which rarely happens when a sovereign experiences pressure from many parties successively coming to power. It seems that the young king himself delved into all state affairs. Thus, already on the third day of his reign, Fyodor Alekseevich expanded the meaning of the Duma: “The boyars, okolnichi and Duma people should come to Verkh at the first hour (that is, at dawn) and sit down to business,” the Tsar announced, and later increased the number of Duma members from 66 to 99 people. The Duma under Fyodor worked very productively. By the way, Fyodor Alekseevich established a uniform working time for officials: five hours from dawn and five hours before sunset.
The young tsar changed the system of orders, reducing their number from 43 to 38, abolished the very important Order of Secret Affairs under Alexei Mikhailovich, which stood outside or even above the unified administrative system, destroyed the tradition of voivodeship “feedings”, from now on voivodes received the sovereign’s salary, and should not take offerings.
Abolition of localism
In 1681, the Russian-Turkish war ended. Under the terms of the Bakhchisarai Peace Treaty, Russia annexed the Left Bank part of Little Russia and Kyiv. The regiments of the new system that took part in this war, formed in the Western style, fought well, but the enemies showed “new inventions in military affairs.” Therefore, Fyodor Alekseevich issued a decree convening a council of servicemen for the “organization and management of military affairs.”
The electors talked about the need to introduce the European division of the army into companies instead of hundreds, and also suggested the destruction of localism - a system of distribution of positions when a person was appointed according to the place in the service hierarchy that his ancestors occupied. Appointments to one position or another caused a lot of infighting and litigation; a dispute over who should command the army could even arise on the eve of a battle!
At the Council, Fyodor Alekseevich made a speech that ranks should be given according to reason and merit, “therefore the sovereign can grant new people to the boyars without humiliating either them or the old families.” On January 12, 1682, the tsar ordered all boyars to “be without places.” The rank books were collected and burned in the vestibule of the royal front chamber.
Marriage
In the first years of Fyodor Alekseevich’s reign, power at court was seized by the Miloslavskys, “people with easy morality,” as Sergei Solovyov wrote about them. However, in 1679 the power of the Miloslavskys was shaken. At the procession “between many people watching,” the king saw a girl whom he liked extremely. This was the daughter of the Smolensk nobleman Agafya Semenovna Grushetskaya, who lived in the house of her uncle, the Duma nobleman Semyon Ivanovich Zaborovsky.
The king's intention to marry unpleasantly struck his relatives. “His mother and uncle, although marrying him to someone else, Grushetskaya was condemned by many for her fury,” and Ivan Ilyich Miloslavsky began to spread rumors: “Her mother and she are known for some obscenities!” Fyodor nevertheless married Agafya. After the wedding, the queen, “judging human weakness,” forgave Miloslavsky, but the king forbade him to come to court.
Under the influence of Agafya Semyonovna, court life changed greatly, the tsar himself changed into Polish dress, and forbade the courtiers to wear Russian obhabni and one-row clothes. The boyars began to shave their beards and openly smoked tobacco. The queen freely appeared in front of people and sat next to the king, which only Marina Mnishek had previously allowed herself to do.
Fyodor Alekseevich's happiness did not last long; on July 21, 1681, Agafya Semyonovna gave birth to the heir to the throne, Ilya, and died three days later. Soon the prince also died. Historian Vasily Tatishchev wrote: “His Majesty was so sad that for several days he did not want to talk to anyone or eat food... And His Majesty soon fell ill from such sadness.”
Six months later, Fyodor Alekseevich married for the second time, to Marfa Matveevna Apraksina. And two months later, on May 7, 1682, he reposed without giving orders for succession to the throne.
Brothers
The activities of Fyodor Alekseevich were a prologue to the reforms of Peter I, and it was under Fyodor that the transformations that made his younger brother the Emperor of All Russia began. Household taxation of residents “according to their bellies and trades,” which was introduced by Fyodor, is the first step towards Peter’s per capita tax; the creation of a voivodeship and local administrative administration prepared the provincial reform of the Great Reformer, and the fight against the influence of Patriarch Joachim ended under Peter with the abolition of the patriarchate.
In their reformatory aspirations, the brothers were very similar: under Fyodor Alekseevich, a project was being prepared to introduce ranks in Russia - the prototype of Peter the Great’s Table of Ranks; a project was developed to create the first higher educational institution - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, which was supposed to not only teach, but also oversee matters of faith and combat heresies...
The main difference between the brothers is in their attitude towards the people. Peter, trying to realize his dream of a “regular state,” considered “little people” only as building material, clay for firing; it was not without reason that during his reign the population decreased by several million. Fedor saw the wealth of the country in people and constantly cared about the welfare of his subjects. He built shelters for the poor, wanted to open shelters for orphans and children of poor parents, where the pupils should be taught various sciences, so that instead of parasites the country would receive wealthy citizens. But early death prevented him from accomplishing much “useful and necessary for the people.”
- 1. Social influence is the behavior of a person that results in a change in the way another person acts, his feelings or thoughts in relation to a certain stimulus. Power is understood as the presence of force at the disposal of the subject (agent of influence) in order to motivate a certain change in the object of influence. Power arises from the dependence of some people on others. The greater this dependence, the greater the potential power. Typically, power is associated with some kind of coercion, even in a mild form.
- 2. There are three following processes through which people come under one influence or another: compliance, identification and internalization. The same behavior can be a derivative of any of these processes or their combination. Compliance stems from the fact that a person (object of influence) estimates to himself what the “price” of disobedience might be. Identification occurs when a person (object of influence) becomes influenced by some other person due to his attractiveness. Internalization occurs when the agent of influence has sufficient competence to enjoy the trust of other people.
- 3. D. French and B. Raven proposed a classification of the various bases of power, highlighting the power of reward, coercion, expert, informational, referent and legitimate. The power of reward is based on the ability of an agent of influence to reward another person in some way in case of recognition of the positive results of the latter’s activities. Coercive power refers to the ability of an agent of influence to punish the object of influence. Expert power is based on the fact that the object of influence attributes to the agent of influence a significant superiority in knowledge or experience. Informational power stems from the persuasive content of a message in itself. Referential power is based on the identification of the object of influence with the agent of influence. Legitimate power is based on the conviction of the object of influence that the subject of influence has the legal right to exercise influence over him. There are also a number of forms of legitimate authority that are more subtle, arising from other social norms. This is the legitimate power of reciprocity, justice and responsibility (dependence). Various bases of power often appear in practice not separately, but in various combinations.
- 4. Authority is the generally recognized influence of a person or organization in certain areas of public life. Authority is one of the forms of exercising power.
- 5. The use of certain sources of power can significantly influence people both in the role of objects of influence and in the role of its subjects.
- 6. Characteristic features of an authoritarian personality are the need for obedience to powerful legitimate authority and commitment to traditional values, rigidity of thinking, and persistent antipathy towards “outside” groups.
- 7. In accordance with the model of “action of power” by D. Kipnis, the choice of any individual means of influence depends on: 1) the resources available to the individual; 2) the power of one’s own restraint when appealing to any basis of power; 3) resistance that the individual expects from the object of influence.