What is Biochemistry? What is biochemistry and what does it study?

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Word "biochemistry" came to us from the 19th century. But it became established as a scientific term a century later thanks to the German scientist Carl Neuberg. It is logical that biochemistry combines the provisions of two sciences: chemistry and biology. Therefore, she studies substances and chemical reactions that occur in a living cell. Famous biochemists of their time were the Arab scientist Avicenna, the Italian scientist Leonardo da Vinci, the Swedish biochemist A. Tiselius and others. Thanks to biochemical developments, methods such as the separation of heterogeneous systems (centrifugation), chromatography, molecular and cellular biology, electrophoresis, electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis have emerged.

Description of activity

The work of a biochemist is complex and multifaceted. This profession requires knowledge of microbiology, botany, plant physiology, medical and physiological chemistry. Specialists in the field of biochemistry are also involved in research into theoretical and applied biology and medicine. The results of their work are important in the field of technical and industrial biology, vitaminology, histochemistry and genetics. The work of biochemists is used in educational institutions, medical centers, biological production enterprises, agriculture and other areas. The professional activity of biochemists is primarily laboratory work. However, a modern biochemist deals not only with a microscope, test tubes and reagents, but also works with various technical instruments.

Wage

average for Russia:Moscow average:average for St. Petersburg:

Job responsibilities

The main responsibilities of a biochemist are conducting scientific research and subsequent analysis of the results obtained.
However, a biochemist not only takes part in research work. He can also work at medical industry enterprises, where he conducts, for example, work on studying the effect of drugs on the blood of humans and animals. Naturally, such activities require compliance with the technological regulations of the biochemical process. A biochemist monitors reagents, raw materials, chemical composition and properties of the finished product.

Features of career growth

Biochemist is not the most in-demand profession, but specialists in this field are highly valued. Scientific developments of companies in various industries (food, agricultural, medical, pharmacological, etc.) cannot be done without the participation of biochemists.
Domestic research centers cooperate closely with Western countries. A specialist who confidently speaks a foreign language and confidently works on a computer can find work in foreign biochemical companies.
A biochemist can realize himself in the field of education, pharmacy or management.

Life and non-living things? Chemistry and biochemistry? Where is the line between them? And does she exist? Where is the connection? For a long time, nature has kept the key to solving these problems behind seven locks. And only in the 20th century was it possible to somewhat reveal the secrets of life, and many fundamental questions became clearer when scientists reached research at the molecular level. Knowledge of the physicochemical foundations of life processes has become one of the main tasks of natural science, and it is in this direction that, perhaps, the most interesting results have been obtained, which have fundamental theoretical significance and promise enormous implications for practice.

Chemistry has long been looking closely at natural substances involved in life processes.

Over the past two centuries, chemistry was destined to play an outstanding role in the knowledge of living nature. At the first stage, chemical study was descriptive in nature, and scientists isolated and characterized various natural substances, waste products of microorganisms, plants and animals, which often had valuable properties (medicines, dyes, etc.). However, only relatively recently this traditional chemistry of natural compounds was replaced by modern biochemistry with its desire not only to describe, but also to explain, and not only the simplest, but also the most complex in living things.

Extraorganic biochemistry

Extraorganic biochemistry as a science emerged in the middle of the 20th century, when new directions in biology, fertilized by the achievements of other sciences, burst onto the scene, and when specialists of a new mindset came to natural science, united by the desire and desire to more accurately describe the living world. And it is no coincidence that under the same roof of an old-fashioned building at 18 Akademicheskiy Proezd there were two newly organized institutes that represented the newest areas of chemical and biological science at that time - the Institute of Chemistry of Natural Compounds and the Institute of Radiation and Physico-Chemical Biology. These two institutes were destined to begin a battle in our country for knowledge of the mechanisms of biological processes and a detailed elucidation of the structures of physiologically active substances.

By this period, the unique structure of the main object of molecular biology, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the famous “double helix,” became clear. (This is a long molecule on which, like on a tape or matrix, the full “text” of all information about the body is recorded.) The structure of the first protein - the hormone insulin - appeared, and the chemical synthesis of the hormone oxytocin was successfully completed.

What exactly is biochemistry and what does it do?

This science studies biologically important natural and artificial (synthetic) structures, chemical compounds - both biopolymers and low molecular weight substances. More precisely, the patterns of connection between their specific chemical structure and the corresponding physiological function. Bioorganic chemistry is interested in the fine structure of the molecule of a biologically important substance, its internal connections, the dynamics and specific mechanism of its change, the role of each of its links in performing the function.

Biochemistry is the key to understanding proteins

Bioorganic chemistry undoubtedly accounts for major advances in the study of protein substances. Back in 1973, the complete primary structure of the enzyme aspartate aminotransferase, consisting of 412 amino acid residues, was completed. This is one of the most important biocatalysts of a living organism and one of the largest proteins with a deciphered structure. Later, the structure of other important proteins was determined - several neurotoxins from the venom of the Central Asian cobra, which are used in studying the mechanism of transmission of nervous excitation as specific blockers, as well as plant hemoglobin from yellow lupine nodules and the anti-leukemic protein actinoxanthin.

Rhodopsins are of great interest. It has long been known that rhodopsin is the main protein involved in the processes of visual reception in animals, and it is isolated from special systems of the eye. This unique protein receives light signals and provides us with the ability to see. It was discovered that a protein similar to rhodopsin is also found in some microorganisms, but performs a completely different function (since bacteria “do not see”). Here he is an energy machine, synthesizing energy-rich substances using light. Both proteins are very similar in structure, but their purpose is fundamentally different.

One of the most important objects of study was the enzyme involved in the implementation of genetic information. Moving along the DNA matrix, it seems to read the hereditary information recorded in it and, on this basis, synthesizes information ribonucleic acid. The latter, in turn, serves as a matrix for protein synthesis. This enzyme is a huge protein, its molecular weight approaches half a million (remember: water has only 18) and consists of several different subunits. Clarification of its structure was destined to help answer the most important question in biology: what is the mechanism for “removing” genetic information, how is the text written in DNA, the main substance of heredity, deciphered.

Peptides

Scientists are interested not only in proteins, but also in shorter chains of amino acids called peptides. Among them are hundreds of substances of enormous physiological significance. Vasopressin and angiotensin are involved in the regulation of blood pressure, gastrin controls the secretion of gastric juice, gramicidin C and polymyxin are antibiotics, which also include so-called memory substances. Enormous biological information is written in a short chain of several “letters” of amino acids!

Today we can artificially produce not only any complex peptide, but also simple proteins, such as insulin. The importance of such work is difficult to overestimate.

A method was created for a comprehensive analysis of the spatial structure of peptides using a variety of physical and computational methods. But the complex three-dimensional architecture of the peptide determines all the specifics of its biological activity. The spatial structure of any biologically active substance, or, as they say, its conformation, is the key to understanding the mechanism of its action.

Among representatives of a new class of peptide systems - depsipeltides - a team of scientists discovered substances of a striking nature that are capable of selectively transporting metal ions through biological membranes, the so-called ionophores. And the main one among them is valinomycin.

The discovery of ionophores constituted an entire era in membraneology, since it made it possible to specifically change the transport of alkali metal ions - potassium and sodium - through biomembranes. The transport of these ions is associated with the processes of nervous excitation, and the processes of respiration, and the processes of reception - perception of signals from the external environment. Using the example of valinomycin, it was possible to show how biological systems are able to select only one ion from dozens of others, bind it into a conveniently transportable complex and transfer it across the membrane. This amazing property of valinomycin lies in its spatial structure, which resembles an openwork bracelet.

Another type of ionophore is the antibiotic gramicidin A. This is a linear chain of 15 amino acids that spatially forms a helix of two molecules, which has been found to be a true double helix. The first double helix in protein systems! And the helical structure, being embedded in the membrane, forms a kind of pore, a channel through which alkali metal ions pass through the membrane. The simplest model of an ion channel. It is clear why gramicidin caused such a storm in membranology. Scientists have already obtained many synthetic analogues of gramicidin, and it has been studied in detail on artificial and biological membranes. How much charm and significance there is in such a seemingly small molecule!

With the help of valinomycin and gramicidin, scientists became involved in the study of biological membranes.

Biological membranes

But the composition of membranes always includes one more main component, which determines their nature. These are fat-like substances, or lipids. Lipid molecules are small in size, but they form strong, giant assemblies that form a continuous membrane layer. Protein molecules are embedded in this layer - and here is one of the models of a biological membrane.

Why are biomembranes important? In general, membranes are the most important regulatory systems of a living organism. Now important technical means are being created in the likeness of biomembranes - microelectrodes, sensors, filters, fuel cells... And the future prospects for using membrane principles in technology are truly limitless.

Other interests in biochemistry

Research on the bichemistry of nucleic acids occupies a prominent place. They are aimed at deciphering the mechanism of chemical mutagenesis, as well as understanding the nature of the connection between nucleic acids and proteins.

Particular attention has long been focused on artificial gene synthesis. A gene, or, to put it simply, a functionally significant section of DNA, today can already be obtained by chemical synthesis. This is one of the important areas of “genetic engineering” that is now fashionable. Work at the intersection of bioorganic chemistry and molecular biology requires mastery of complex techniques and friendly cooperation between chemists and biologists.

Another class of biopolymers are carbohydrates, or polysaccharides. We know typical representatives of substances in this group - cellulose, starch, glycogen, beet sugar. But in a living organism, carbohydrates perform a wide variety of functions. This is the protection of the cell from enemies (immunity), it is the most important component of cell walls, a component of receptor systems.

Finally, antibiotics. In laboratories, the structure of such important groups of antibiotics as streptothricin, olivomycin, albofungin, abikovchromycin, aureolic acid, which have antitumor, antiviral and antibacterial activity, has been clarified.

It is impossible to talk about all the searches and achievements of bioorganic chemistry. We can only say with certainty that bioorganics have more plans than things done.

Biochemistry works closely with molecular biology and biophysics, which study life at the molecular level. It became the chemical foundation of these studies. The creation and widespread use of new methods and new scientific concepts contributes to the further progress of biology. The latter, in turn, stimulates the development of chemical sciences.

In this article we will answer the question of what biochemistry is. Here we will look at the definition of this science, its history and research methods, pay attention to some processes and define its sections.

Introduction

To answer the question of what biochemistry is, suffice it to say that it is a science devoted to the chemical composition and processes occurring inside a living cell of the body. However, it has many components, having learned which, you can get a more specific idea of it.

In some temporary episodes of the 19th century, the terminological unit “biochemistry” began to be used for the first time. However, it was introduced into scientific circles only in 1903 by a chemist from Germany, Carl Neuberg. This science occupies an intermediate position between biology and chemistry.

Historical facts

Humanity was able to clearly answer the question of what biochemistry is only about a hundred years ago. Despite the fact that society used biochemical processes and reactions in ancient times, it was not aware of the presence of their true essence.

Some of the most distant examples are bread making, winemaking, cheese making, etc. A number of questions about the healing properties of plants, health problems, etc. forced a person to delve into their basis and the nature of the activity.

The development of a general set of directions that ultimately led to the creation of biochemistry can be observed already in ancient times. A scientist-doctor from Persia in the tenth century wrote a book about the canons of medical science, where he was able to describe in detail various medicinal substances. In the 17th century, van Helmont proposed the term “enzyme” as a unit of reagent of a chemical nature involved in digestive processes.

In the 18th century, thanks to the works of A.L. Lavoisier and M.V. Lomonosov, the law of conservation of mass of matter was derived. At the end of the same century, the importance of oxygen in the process of respiration was determined.

In 1827, science made it possible to create the division of biological molecules into compounds of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. These terms are still used today. A year later, in the work of F. Wöhler, it was proven that substances in living systems can be synthesized by artificial means. Another important event was the production and formulation of a theory of the structure of organic compounds.

The fundamentals of biochemistry took many hundreds of years to form, but were clearly defined in 1903. This science became the first biological discipline that had its own system of mathematical analysis.

25 years later, in 1928, F. Griffith conducted an experiment whose purpose was to study the transformation mechanism. The scientist infected mice with pneumococci. He killed bacteria from one strain and added them to bacteria from another. The study found that the process of purifying disease-causing agents resulted in the formation of nucleic acid rather than protein. The list of discoveries is still growing.

Availability of related disciplines

Biochemistry is a separate science, but its creation was preceded by an active process of development of the organic branch of chemistry. The main difference lies in the objects of study. Biochemistry considers only those substances or processes that can occur in the conditions of living organisms, and not outside them.

Biochemistry eventually incorporated the concept of molecular biology. They differ from each other mainly in their methods of action and the subjects they study. Currently, the terminological units “biochemistry” and “molecular biology” have begun to be used as synonyms.

Availability of sections

Today, biochemistry includes a number of research areas, including:

The branch of static biochemistry is the science of the chemical composition of living beings, structures and molecular diversity, functions, etc.

There are a number of sections studying biological polymers of protein, lipid, carbohydrate, amino acid molecules, as well as nucleic acids and the nucleotide itself.

Biochemistry, which studies vitamins, their role and form of influence on the body, possible disturbances in vital processes due to deficiency or excessive amounts.

Hormonal biochemistry is a science that studies hormones, their biological effect, the causes of deficiency or excess.

The science of metabolism and its mechanisms is a dynamic branch of biochemistry (includes bioenergetics).

Molecular Biology Research.

The functional component of biochemistry studies the phenomenon of chemical transformations responsible for the functionality of all components of the body, starting with tissues and ending with the whole body.

Medical biochemistry is a section on the patterns of metabolism between the structures of the body under the influence of diseases.

There are also branches of the biochemistry of microorganisms, humans, animals, plants, blood, tissues, etc.

Research and Problem Solving Tools

Biochemistry methods are based on fractionation, analysis, detailed study and examination of the structure of both an individual component and the whole organism or its substance. Most of them were formed during the 20th century, and chromatography, the process of centrifugation and electrophoresis, became the most widely known.

At the end of the 20th century, biochemical methods began to increasingly find their application in molecular and cellular branches of biology. The structure of the entire human DNA genome has been determined. This discovery made it possible to learn about the existence of a huge number of substances, in particular various proteins, that were not detected during the purification of biomass, due to their extremely low content in the substance.

Genomics has challenged a huge amount of biochemical knowledge and led to the development of changes in its methodology. The concept of computer virtual modeling appeared.

Chemical component

Physiology and biochemistry are closely related. This is explained by the dependence of the rate of occurrence of all physiological processes with the content of a different number of chemical elements.

There are 90 components of the periodic table of chemical elements found in nature, but about a quarter are needed for life. Our body does not need many rare components at all.

The different positions of a taxon in the hierarchical table of living beings determine different needs for the presence of certain elements.

99% of human mass consists of six elements (C, H, N, O, F, Ca). In addition to the main amount of these types of atoms that form substances, we need 19 more elements, but in small or microscopic volumes. Among them are: Zn, Ni, Ma, K, Cl, Na and others.

Protein biomolecule

The main molecules studied by biochemistry are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and the attention of this science is focused on their hybrids.

Proteins are large compounds. They are formed by linking chains of monomers - amino acids. Most living beings obtain proteins through the synthesis of twenty types of these compounds.

These monomers differ from each other in the structure of the radical group, which plays a huge role during protein folding. The purpose of this process is to form a three-dimensional structure. Amino acids are connected to each other by forming peptide bonds.

When answering the question of what biochemistry is, one cannot fail to mention such complex and multifunctional biological macromolecules as proteins. They have more tasks than polysaccharides or nucleic acids to perform.

Some proteins are represented by enzymes and are involved in catalyzing various reactions of a biochemical nature, which is very important for metabolism. Other protein molecules can act as signaling mechanisms, form cytoskeletons, participate in immune defense, etc.

Some types of proteins are capable of forming non-protein biomolecular complexes. Substances created by fusing proteins with oligosaccharides allow the existence of molecules such as glycoproteins, and interaction with lipids leads to the appearance of lipoproteins.

Nucleic acid molecule

Nucleic acids are represented by complexes of macromolecules consisting of a polynucleotide set of chains. Their main functional purpose is to encode hereditary information. Nucleic acid synthesis occurs due to the presence of mononucleoside triphosphate macroenergetic molecules (ATP, TTP, UTP, GTP, CTP).

The most widespread representatives of such acids are DNA and RNA. These structural elements are found in every living cell, from archaea to eukaryotes, and even viruses.

Lipid molecule

Lipids are molecular substances composed of glycerol, to which fatty acids (1 to 3) are attached through ester bonds. Such substances are divided into groups according to the length of the hydrocarbon chain, and attention is also paid to saturation. The biochemistry of water does not allow it to dissolve lipid (fat) compounds. As a rule, such substances dissolve in polar solutions.

The main tasks of lipids are to provide energy to the body. Some are part of hormones, can perform a signaling function or transport lipophilic molecules.

carbohydrate molecule

Carbohydrates are biopolymers formed by combining monomers, which in this case are represented by monosaccharides, such as glucose or fructose. The study of plant biochemistry has allowed man to determine that the bulk of carbohydrates are contained in them.

These biopolymers find their use in structural function and providing energy resources to an organism or cell. In plant organisms the main storage substance is starch, and in animals it is glycogen.

The course of the Krebs cycle

There is a Krebs cycle in biochemistry - a phenomenon during which the predominant number of eukaryotic organisms receive most of the energy spent on the oxidation processes of ingested food.

It can be observed inside cellular mitochondria. It is formed through several reactions, during which reserves of “hidden” energy are released.

In biochemistry, the Krebs cycle is an important fragment of the general respiratory process and material metabolism within cells. The cycle was discovered and studied by H. Krebs. For this, the scientist received the Nobel Prize.

This process is also called an electron transfer system. This is due to the concomitant conversion of ATP to ADP. The first compound, in turn, is responsible for ensuring metabolic reactions through the release of energy.

Biochemistry and medicine

Biochemistry of medicine is presented to us as a science that covers many areas of biological and chemical processes. Currently, there is an entire industry in education that trains specialists for these studies.

Every living thing is studied here: from bacteria or viruses to the human body. Having a specialty as a biochemist gives the subject the opportunity to follow the diagnosis and analyze the treatment applicable to the individual unit, draw conclusions, etc.

To prepare a highly qualified expert in this field, you need to train him in natural sciences, medical fundamentals and biotechnological disciplines, and conduct many tests in biochemistry. The student is also given the opportunity to practically apply their knowledge.

Universities of biochemistry are currently becoming increasingly popular, which is due to the rapid development of this science, its importance for humans, demand, etc.

Among the most famous educational institutions where specialists in this branch of science are trained, the most popular and significant are: Moscow State University. Lomonosov, Perm State Pedagogical University named after. Belinsky, Moscow State University. Ogarev, Kazan and Krasnoyarsk State Universities and others.

The list of documents required for admission to such universities does not differ from the list for admission to other higher education institutions. Biology and chemistry are the main subjects that must be taken upon admission.

BIOCHEMISTRY (biological chemistry), a science that studies the chemical composition of living objects, the structure and pathways of transformation of natural compounds in cells, organs, tissues and whole organisms, as well as the physiological role of individual chemical transformations and the patterns of their regulation. The term “biochemistry” was introduced by the German scientist K. Neuberg in 1903. The subject, objectives and methods of research in biochemistry relate to the study of all manifestations of life at the molecular level; In the system of natural sciences, it occupies an independent field, relating equally to both biology and chemistry. Biochemistry is traditionally divided into static, which deals with the analysis of the structure and properties of all organic and inorganic compounds that make up living objects (cellular organelles, cells, tissues, organs); dynamic, studying the entire set of transformations of individual compounds (metabolism and energy); functional, which studies the physiological role of molecules of individual compounds and their transformations in certain manifestations of life, as well as comparative and evolutionary biochemistry, which determines the similarities and differences in the composition and metabolism of organisms belonging to different taxonomic groups. Depending on the object of study, biochemistry of humans, plants, animals, microorganisms, blood, muscles, neurochemistry, etc. is distinguished, and as knowledge deepens and their specialization, enzymology, which studies the structure and mechanism of action of enzymes, biochemistry of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, etc. acids, membranes. Based on goals and objectives, biochemistry is often divided into medical, agricultural, technical, nutritional biochemistry, etc.

The formation of biochemistry in the 16th–19th centuries. The emergence of biochemistry as an independent science is closely related to the development of other natural science disciplines (chemistry, physics) and medicine. Iatrochemistry made a significant contribution to the development of chemistry and medicine in the 16th - first half of the 17th century. Its representatives studied digestive juices, bile, fermentation processes, etc., and raised questions about the transformations of substances in living organisms. Paracelsus came to the conclusion that the processes occurring in the human body are chemical processes. J. Silvius attached great importance to the correct ratio of acids and alkalis in the human body, the violation of which, as he believed, underlies many diseases. J. B. van Helmont tried to establish how plant matter is created. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Italian scientist S. Santorio, using a camera specially designed by him, tried to establish the ratio of the amount of food taken and human excreta.

The scientific foundations of biochemistry were laid in the 2nd half of the 18th century, which was facilitated by discoveries in the field of chemistry and physics (including the discovery and description of a number of chemical elements and simple compounds, the formulation of gas laws, the discovery of laws of conservation and transformation of energy), and the use of chemical methods analysis in physiology. In the 1770s, A. Lavoisier formulated the idea that the processes of combustion and respiration are similar; established that the respiration of humans and animals from a chemical point of view is an oxidation process. J. Priestley (1772) proved that plants emit oxygen necessary for the life of animals, and the Dutch botanist J. Ingenhouse (1779) established that the purification of “spoiled” air is carried out only by the green parts of plants and only in the light (these works laid the foundation study of photosynthesis). L. Spallanzani proposed to consider digestion as a complex chain of chemical transformations. By the beginning of the 19th century, a number of organic substances (urea, glycerin, citric, malic, lactic and uric acids, glucose, etc.) were isolated from natural sources. In 1828, F. Wöhler for the first time carried out the chemical synthesis of urea from ammonium cyanate, thereby debunking the previously prevailing idea of the possibility of synthesizing organic compounds only by living organisms and proving the inconsistency of vitalism. In 1835, I. Berzelius introduced the concept of catalysis; he postulated that fermentation is a catalytic process. In 1836, the Dutch chemist G. J. Mulder first proposed a theory of the structure of protein substances. Data gradually accumulated on the chemical composition of plant and animal organisms and the chemical reactions occurring in them; by the mid-19th century, a number of enzymes were described (amylase, pepsin, trypsin, etc.). In the 2nd half of the 19th century, some information was obtained about the structure and chemical transformations of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, and photosynthesis. In 1850-55, C. Bernard isolated glycogen from the liver and established the fact of its transformation into glucose entering the blood. The work of I. F. Miescher (1868) laid the foundation for the study of nucleic acids. In 1870, J. Liebig formulated the chemical nature of the action of enzymes (its basic principles remain important to this day); in 1894, E. G. Fischer first used enzymes as biocatalysts for chemical reactions; he came to the conclusion that the substrate corresponded to the enzyme like a “key to a lock.” L. Pasteur concluded that fermentation is a biological process, the implementation of which requires living yeast cells, thereby rejecting the chemical theory of fermentation (J. Berzelius, E. Mitscherlich, J. Liebig), according to which the fermentation of sugars is a complex chemical reaction. Clarity was finally brought to this issue after E. Buchner (1897, together with his brother, G. Buchner) proved the ability of an extract of microorganism cells to cause fermentation. Their work contributed to the knowledge of the nature and mechanism of action of enzymes. Soon A. Garden established that fermentation is accompanied by the inclusion of phosphate in carbohydrate compounds, which served as an impetus for the isolation and identification of phosphorus esters of carbohydrates and the understanding of their key role in biochemical transformations.

The development of biochemistry in Russia during this period is associated with the names of A. Ya. Danilevsky (studied proteins and enzymes), M. V. Nenetsky (studied the pathways of urea formation in the liver, the structure of chlorophyll and hemoglobin), V. S. Gulevich (biochemistry of muscle tissue , muscle extractives), S. N. Vinogradsky (discovered chemosynthesis in bacteria), M. S. Tsvet (created a method of chromatographic analysis), A. I. Bach (peroxide theory of biological oxidation), etc. Russian doctor N. I. Lunin paved the way for the study of vitamins, experimentally proving (1880) the need for special substances (in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats, salts and water) for the normal development of animals. At the end of the 19th century, ideas were formed about the similarity of the basic principles and mechanisms of chemical transformations in various groups of organisms, as well as about the features of their metabolism (metabolism).

The accumulation of a large amount of information regarding the chemical composition of plant and animal organisms and the chemical processes occurring in them has led to the need to systematize and generalize the data. The first work in this direction was the textbook by I. Simon (“Handbuch der angewandten medicinischen Chemie”, 1842). In 1842, J. Liebig’s monograph “Die Tierchemie oder die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiologie und Pathologie” appeared. The first domestic textbook of physiological chemistry was published by A. I. Khodnev, a professor at Kharkov University, in 1847. Periodicals began to be published regularly in 1873. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, special departments were organized at the medical faculties of many Russian and foreign universities (initially they were called departments of medical or functional chemistry). In Russia, for the first time, departments of medicinal chemistry were created by A. Ya. Danilevsky at Kazan University (1863) and A. D. Bulyginsky (1864) at the Faculty of Medicine of Moscow University.

Biochemistry in the 20th century . The formation of modern biochemistry occurred in the 1st half of the 20th century. Its beginning was marked by the discovery of vitamins and hormones, and their role in the body was determined. In 1902, E. G. Fischer was the first to synthesize peptides, thereby establishing the nature of the chemical bond between amino acids in proteins. In 1912, the Polish biochemist K. Funk isolated a substance that prevents the development of polyneuritis and called it a vitamin. After this, many vitamins were gradually discovered, and vitaminology became one of the branches of biochemistry, as well as the science of nutrition. In 1913, L. Michaelis and M. Menten (Germany) developed the theoretical foundations of enzymatic reactions and formulated quantitative principles of biological catalysis; the structure of chlorophyll was established (R. Willstetter, A. Stohl, Germany). In the early 1920s, A.I. Oparin formulated a general approach to the chemical understanding of the problem of the origin of life. For the first time, the enzymes urease (J. Sumner, 1926), chymotrypsin, pepsin and trypsin (J. Northrop, 1930s) were obtained in crystalline form, which served as proof of the protein nature of enzymes and the impetus for the rapid development of enzymology. During these same years, H. A. Krebs described the mechanism of urea synthesis in vertebrates during the ornithine cycle (1932); A. E. Braunstein (1937, together with M. G. Kritsman) discovered the transamination reaction as an intermediate in the biosynthesis and breakdown of amino acids; O. G. Warburg discovered the nature of the enzyme that reacts with oxygen in tissues. In the 1930s, the main stage of studying the nature of fundamental biochemical processes was completed. The sequence of reactions of carbohydrate decomposition during glycolysis and fermentation was established (O. Meyerhof, Ya. O. Parnas), the transformation of pyruvic acid in the cycles of di- and tricarboxylic acids (A. Szent-Gyorgyi, H. A. Krebs, 1937), photodecomposition was discovered water (R. Hill, UK, 1937). The works of V. I. Palladin, A. N. Bach, G. Wieland, the Swedish biochemist T. Thunberg, O. G. Warburg and the English biochemist D. Keilin laid the foundations of modern ideas about intracellular respiration. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate were isolated from muscle extracts. In the USSR, the work of V. A. Engelhardt (1930) and V. A. Belitser (1939) on oxidative phosphorylation and the quantitative characteristics of this process laid the foundation for modern bioenergy. Later, F. Lipman developed ideas about energy-rich phosphorus compounds and established the central role of ATP in the bioenergetics of the cell. Discovery of DNA in plants (Russian biochemists A. N. Belozersky and A.R. Kizel, 1936) contributed to the recognition of the biochemical unity of the plant and animal world. In 1948, A. A. Krasnovsky discovered the reaction of reversible photochemical reduction of chlorophyll, significant progress was made in elucidating the mechanism of photosynthesis (M. Calvin).

The further development of biochemistry is associated with the study of the structure and function of a number of proteins, the development of the basic principles of the theory of enzymatic catalysis, the establishment of fundamental schemes of metabolism, etc. The progress of biochemistry in the 2nd half of the 20th century is largely due to the development of new methods. Thanks to the improvement of chromatography and electrophoresis methods, it has become possible to decipher the sequences of amino acids in proteins and nucleotides in nucleic acids. X-ray diffraction analysis made it possible to determine the spatial structure of the molecules of a number of proteins, DNA and other compounds. Using electron microscopy, previously unknown cellular structures were discovered; thanks to ultracentrifugation, various cellular organelles (including the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes) were isolated; the use of isotope methods made it possible to understand the most complex pathways of transformation of substances in organisms, etc. Various types of radio and optical spectroscopy and mass spectroscopy occupied an important place in biochemical research. L. Pauling (1951, together with R. Corey) formulated ideas about the secondary structure of protein, F. Sanger deciphered (1953) the structure of the protein hormone insulin, and J. Kendrew (1960) determined the spatial structure of the myoglobin molecule. Thanks to the improvement of research methods, many new things have been introduced into the understanding of the structure of enzymes, the formation of their active center, and their work as part of complex complexes. After establishing the role of DNA as a substance of heredity (O. Avery, 1944), special attention is paid to nucleic acids and their participation in the process of transmitting the characteristics of an organism by inheritance. In 1953, J. Watson and F. Crick proposed a model of the spatial structure of DNA (the so-called double helix), linking its structure with biological function. This event was a turning point in the development of biochemistry and biology in general and served as the basis for the separation of a new science from biochemistry - molecular biology. Research on the structure of nucleic acids, their role in protein biosynthesis and the phenomena of heredity are also associated with the names of E. Chargaff, A. Kornberg, S. Ochoa, H. G. Coran, F. Sanger, F. Jacob and J. Monod, as well as Russian scientists A. N. Belozersky, A. A. Baev, R. B. Khesin-Lurie and others. The study of the structure of biopolymers, analysis of the action of biologically active low-molecular natural compounds (vitamins, hormones, alkaloids, antibiotics, etc.) led to the need establishing a connection between the structure of a substance and its biological function. In this regard, research on the borders of biological and organic chemistry has developed. This direction became known as bioorganic chemistry. In the 1950s, at the intersection of biochemistry and inorganic chemistry, bioinorganic chemistry was formed as an independent discipline.

The undoubted successes of biochemistry include: the discovery of the participation of biological membranes in energy generation and subsequent research in the field of bioenergy; establishing pathways for the transformation of the most important metabolic products; knowledge of the mechanisms of transmission of nervous excitation, the biochemical foundations of higher nervous activity; elucidation of the mechanisms of transmission of genetic information, regulation of the most important biochemical processes in living organisms (cellular and intercellular signaling) and many others.

Modern development of biochemistry. Biochemistry is an integral part of physical and chemical biology - a complex of interrelated and closely intertwined sciences, which also includes biophysics, bioorganic chemistry, molecular and cellular biology, etc., which study the physical and chemical foundations of living matter. Biochemical research covers a wide range of problems, the solution of which is carried out at the intersection of several sciences. For example, biochemical genetics studies the substances and processes involved in the implementation of genetic information, as well as the role of various genes in the regulation of biochemical processes under normal conditions and in various genetic metabolic disorders. Biochemical pharmacology studies the molecular mechanisms of action of drugs, contributing to the development of more advanced and safe drugs, immunochemistry - the structure, properties and interactions of antibodies (immunoglobulins) and antigens. At the present stage, biochemistry is characterized by the active involvement of a wide methodological arsenal of related disciplines. Even such a traditional branch of biochemistry as enzymology, when characterizing the biological role of a particular enzyme, rarely does without targeted mutagenesis, turning off the gene encoding the enzyme under study in living organisms, or, conversely, its increased expression.

Although the basic pathways and general principles of metabolism and energy in living systems can be considered established, many details of metabolism and especially its regulation remain unknown. Particularly relevant is the elucidation of the causes of metabolic disorders leading to severe “biochemical” diseases (various forms of diabetes, atherosclerosis, malignant cell degeneration, neurodegenerative diseases, cirrhosis, and many others), and the scientific basis for its targeted correction (the creation of medicines, dietary recommendations). The use of biochemical methods makes it possible to identify important biological markers of various diseases and offer effective methods for their diagnosis and treatment. Thus, determination of cardiac-specific proteins and enzymes in the blood (troponin T and myocardial creatine kinase isoenzyme) allows for early diagnosis of myocardial infarction. An important role is played by nutritional biochemistry, which studies the chemical and biochemical components of food, their value and significance for human health, and the influence of food storage and processing on food quality. A systematic approach to the study of the entire set of biological macromolecules and low-molecular metabolites of a specific cell, tissue, organ or organism of a certain type has led to the emergence of new disciplines. These include genomics (studies the entire set of genes of organisms and the characteristics of their expression), transcriptomics (establishes the quantitative and qualitative composition of RNA molecules), proteomics (analyzes the entire variety of protein molecules characteristic of an organism) and metabolomics (studies all metabolites of an organism or its individual cells and organs formed in the process of life), actively using biochemical strategy and biochemical research methods. The applied field of genomics and proteomics has developed - bioengineering associated with the targeted design of genes and proteins. The above-mentioned directions are generated equally by biochemistry, molecular biology, genetics and bioorganic chemistry.

Scientific institutions, societies and periodicals. Scientific research in the field of biochemistry is carried out in many specialized research institutes and laboratories. In Russia they are located in the RAS system (including the Institute of Biochemistry, Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry, Institute of Plant Physiology, Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, Siberian Institute of Physiology and Biochemistry of Plants, Institute of Molecular Biology, Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry), industry academies (in including the Institute of Biomedical Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences), a number of ministries. Work on biochemistry is carried out in laboratories and at numerous departments of biochemical universities. Biochemist specialists both abroad and in the Russian Federation are trained in the chemical and biological faculties of universities that have special departments; biochemists of a narrower profile - in medical, technological, agricultural and other universities.

In most countries there are scientific biochemical societies, united in the European Federation of Biochemical Societies (FEBS) and the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biologists (IUBMB). These organizations organize symposia, conferences, and congresses. In Russia, the All-Union Biochemical Society with numerous republican and city branches was created in 1959 (since 2002, the Society of Biochemists and Molecular Biologists).

There are a large number of periodicals in which works on biochemistry are published. The most famous are: “Journal of Biological Chemistry” (Balt., 1905), “Biochemistry” (Wash., 1964), “Biochemical Journal” (L., 1906), “Phytochemistry” (Oxf.; N. Y., 1962), “ Biochimica et Biophisica Acta" (Amst., 1947) and many others; annuals: Annual Review of Biochemistry (Stanford, 1932), Advances in Enzymology and Related Subjects of Biochemistry (N.Y., 1945), Advances in Protein Chemistry (N.Y., 1945), Febs Journal (originally European Journal of Biochemistry", Oxf., 1967), "Febs letters" (Amst., 1968), "Nucleic Acids Research" (Oxf., 1974), "Biochimie" (R., 1914; Amst., 1986), " Trends in Biochemical Sciences" (Elsevier, 1976), etc. In Russia, the results of experimental studies are published in the journals "Biochemistry" (Moscow, 1936), "Plant Physiology" (Moscow, 1954), "Journal of Evolutionary Biochemistry and Physiology" ( St. Petersburg, 1965), “Applied Biochemistry and Microbiology” (Moscow, 1965), “Biological Membranes” (Moscow, 1984), “Neurochemistry” (Moscow, 1982), etc., review works on biochemistry - in journals “Successes in modern biology” (M., 1932), “Successes in chemistry” (M., 1932), etc.; yearbook “Advances in Biological Chemistry” (Moscow, 1950).

Lit.: Jua M. History of chemistry. M., 1975; Shamin A. M. History of protein chemistry. M., 1977; aka. History of biological chemistry. M., 1994; Fundamentals of Biochemistry: In 3 vols. M., 1981; Strayer L. Biochemistry: In 3 vols. M., 1984-1985; Leninger A. Fundamentals of biochemistry: In 3 vols. M., 1985; Azimov A. Brief history of biology. M., 2002; Elliot V., Elliot D. Biochemistry and molecular biology. M., 2002; Berg J.M., Tymoczko J.L., Stryer L. Biochemistry. 5th ed. N.Y., 2002; Human biochemistry: In 2 volumes, 2nd ed. M., 2004; Berezov T. T., Korovkin B. F. Biological chemistry. 3rd ed. M., 2004; Voet D., Voet J. Biochemistry. 3rd ed. N.Y., 2004; Nelson D. L., Cox M. M. Lehninger principles of biochemistry. 4th ed. N.Y., 2005; Elliott W., Elliott D. Biochemistry and molecular biology. 3rd ed. Oxf., 2005; Garrett R.N., Grisham S.M. Biochemistry. 3rd ed. Belmont, 2005.

A. D. Vinogradov, A. E. Medvedev.

Blood chemistry – one of the most popular research methods for patients and doctors. If you clearly know what a biochemical analysis from a vein shows, you can identify a number of serious ailments in the early stages, including - viral hepatitis , . Early detection of such pathologies makes it possible to apply the correct treatment and cure them.

The nurse collects blood for testing within a few minutes. Every patient should understand that this procedure does not cause any discomfort. The answer to the question of where blood is taken for analysis is clear: from a vein.

Speaking about what a biochemical blood test is and what is included in it, it should be taken into account that the results obtained are actually a kind of reflection of the general condition of the body. However, when trying to independently understand whether the analysis is normal or whether there are certain deviations from the normal value, it is important to understand what LDL is, what CK is (CPK - creatine phosphokinase), to understand what urea (urea), etc.

General information about blood biochemistry analysis - what it is and what you can find out by doing it, you will receive from this article. How much it costs to conduct such an analysis, how many days it takes to get results, should be found out directly in the laboratory where the patient intends to conduct this study.

How do you prepare for biochemical analysis?

Before donating blood, you need to carefully prepare for this process. Those who are interested in how to pass the test correctly need to take into account several fairly simple requirements:

You need to donate blood only on an empty stomach;
in the evening, on the eve of the upcoming analysis, you should not drink strong coffee, tea, consume fatty foods, or alcoholic beverages (it is better not to drink the latter for 2-3 days);
do not smoke for at least an hour before the test;
the day before the test, you should not practice any thermal procedures - go to the sauna, bathhouse, and also the person should not expose yourself to serious physical activity;
laboratory tests must be taken in the morning, before any medical procedures;
a person who is preparing for tests, upon arriving at the laboratory, should calm down a little, sit for a few minutes and catch his breath;
the answer to the question of whether it is possible to brush your teeth before taking tests is negative: in order to accurately determine blood sugar, in the morning before the test you need to ignore this hygienic procedure, and also not drink tea and coffee;
You should not take hormonal medications, diuretics, etc. before taking blood;
two weeks before the study you need to stop taking medications that affect lipids in the blood, in particular statins ;
if you need to take a full analysis again, this must be done at the same time, the laboratory must also be the same.

If a clinical blood test has been performed, the readings are deciphered by a specialist. Also, the interpretation of biochemical blood test results can be carried out using a special table, which indicates normal test results in adults and children. If any indicator differs from the norm, it is important to pay attention to this and consult with a doctor who can correctly “read” all the results obtained and give his recommendations. If necessary, blood biochemistry is prescribed: extended profile.

Interpretation table for biochemical blood tests in adults

Indicator in the study	Norm
Total protein	63-87 g/l
Protein fractions: albumin globulins (α1, α2, γ, β)
Creatinine	44-97 µmol per l – in women, 62-124 – in men
Urea	2.5-8.3 mmol/l
Uric acid	0.12-0.43 mmol/l - in men, 0.24-0.54 mmol/l - in women.
Total cholesterol	3.3-5.8 mmol/l
LDL	less than 3 mmol per l
HDL	greater than or equal to 1.2 mmol per L - in women, 1 mmol per L - in men
Glucose	3.5-6.2 mmol per l
Total bilirubin	8.49-20.58 µmol/l
Direct bilirubin	2.2-5.1 µmol/l
Triglycerides	less than 1.7 mmol per l
Aspartate aminotransferase (abbreviated as AST)	alanine aminotransferase - normal in women and men - up to 42 U/l
Alanine aminotransferase (abbreviated as ALT)	up to 38 U/l
Gamma glutamyl transferase (abbreviated GGT)	normal GGT levels are up to 33.5 U/l in men, up to 48.6 U/l in women.
Creatine kinase (abbreviated as KK)	up to 180 U/l
Alkaline phosphatase (abbreviated as ALP)	up to 260 U/l
α-amylase	up to 110 E per liter
Potassium	3.35-5.35 mmol/l
Sodium	130-155 mmol/l

Thus, a biochemical blood test makes it possible to conduct a detailed analysis to assess the functioning of internal organs. Also, decoding the results allows you to adequately “read” which macro- and microelements, needed by the body. Blood biochemistry makes it possible to recognize the presence of pathologies.

If you correctly decipher the obtained indicators, it is much easier to make any diagnosis. Biochemistry is a more detailed study than CBC. After all, decoding the indicators of a general blood test does not allow one to obtain such detailed data.

It is very important to conduct such studies when. After all, a general analysis during pregnancy does not provide the opportunity to obtain complete information. Therefore, biochemistry in pregnant women is prescribed, as a rule, in the first months and in the third trimester. In the presence of certain pathologies and poor health, this analysis is performed more often.

In modern laboratories they are able to conduct research and decipher the obtained indicators within a few hours. The patient is provided with a table containing all the data. Accordingly, it is even possible to independently track how normal blood counts are in adults and children.

Both the table for deciphering a general blood test in adults and biochemical tests are deciphered taking into account the age and gender of the patient. After all, the norm of blood biochemistry, like the norm of a clinical blood test, can vary in women and men, in young and elderly patients.

Hemogram is a clinical blood test in adults and children, which allows you to find out the amount of all blood elements, as well as their morphological features, ratio, content, etc.

Since blood biochemistry is a complex study, it also includes liver tests. Decoding the analysis allows you to determine whether liver function is normal. Liver parameters are important for diagnosing pathologies of this organ. The following data make it possible to assess the structural and functional state of the liver: ALT, GGTP (the GGTP norm in women is slightly lower), alkaline phosphatase, level and total protein. Liver tests are performed when necessary to establish or confirm the diagnosis.

Cholinesterase determined for the purpose of diagnosing the severity and condition of the liver, as well as its functions.

Blood sugar determined to assess the functions of the endocrine system. You can find out what a blood sugar test is called directly in the laboratory. The sugar symbol can be found on the results sheet. What is sugar called? It is referred to as "glucose" or "GLU" in English.

The norm is important CRP , since a jump in these indicators indicates the development of inflammation. Index AST indicates pathological processes associated with tissue destruction.

Index M.I.D. in a blood test it is determined during a general analysis. The MID level allows you to determine the development of infectious diseases, anemia, etc. The MID indicator allows you to assess the state of the human immune system.

ICSU is an indicator of the average concentration in . If MSHC is elevated, the reasons for this are associated with a deficiency of or, as well as congenital spherocytosis.

MPV - average value of the volume measured.

Lipidogram provides for the determination of total, HDL, LDL, and triglycerides. The lipid spectrum is determined to identify lipid metabolism disorders in the body.

Norm blood electrolytes indicates the normal course of metabolic processes in the body.

Seromucoid – this is a fraction of proteins, which includes a group of glycoproteins. Speaking about what seromucoid is, it should be taken into account that if the connective tissue is destroyed, degraded or damaged, seromucoids enter the blood plasma. Therefore, seromucoids are determined to predict development.

LDH, LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) - This is involved in the oxidation of glucose and the production of lactic acid.

Research on osteocalcin carried out for diagnostics.

Analysis on ferritin (protein complex, the main intracellular iron depot) is carried out if hemochromatosis, chronic inflammatory and infectious diseases, or tumors are suspected.

Blood test for ASO important for diagnosing types of complications after a streptococcal infection.

In addition, other indicators are determined, and other investigations are carried out (protein electrophoresis, etc.). The norm of a biochemical blood test is displayed in special tables. It displays the norm of a biochemical blood test in women; the table also provides information about normal values in men. But still, about how to decipher a general blood test and how to read the data of a biochemical analysis, it is better to ask a specialist who will adequately evaluate the results in a comprehensive manner and prescribe the appropriate treatment.

Deciphering the biochemistry of blood in children is carried out by the specialist who ordered the studies. For this purpose, a table is also used, which indicates the norm for all indicators in children.

In veterinary medicine, there are also standards for biochemical blood parameters for dogs and cats - the corresponding tables indicate the biochemical composition of animal blood.

What some indicators mean in a blood test is discussed in more detail below.

Protein means a lot in the human body, as it takes part in the creation of new cells, in the transport of substances and the formation of humoral proteins.

The composition of proteins includes 20 main proteins; they also contain inorganic substances, vitamins, lipid and carbohydrate residues.

The liquid part of the blood contains approximately 165 proteins, and their structure and role in the body are different. Proteins are divided into three different protein fractions:

globulins (α1, α2, β, γ);
fibrinogen .

Since protein production occurs mainly in the liver, their level indicates its synthetic function.

If a proteinogram indicates that there is a decrease in total protein levels in the body, this phenomenon is defined as hypoproteinemia. A similar phenomenon is observed in the following cases:

during protein fasting - if a person follows a certain diet, practices vegetarianism;
if there is increased excretion of protein in the urine - with kidney disease;
if a person loses a lot of blood - with bleeding, heavy periods;
in case of serious burns;
with exudative pleurisy, exudative pericarditis, ascites;
with the development of malignant neoplasms;
if protein formation is impaired - with hepatitis;
when absorption of substances decreases – when , colitis, enteritis, etc.;
after prolonged use of glucocorticosteroids.

An increased level of protein in the body is hyperproteinemia . There is a distinction between absolute and relative hyperproteinemia.

A relative increase in proteins develops in the event of loss of the liquid part of the plasma. This happens if you are worried about constant vomiting, with cholera.

An absolute increase in protein is noted if inflammatory processes or myeloma occur.

The concentrations of this substance change by 10% with changes in body position, as well as during physical activity.

Why do the concentrations of protein fractions change?

Protein fractions – globulins, albumins, fibrinogen.

A standard blood biotest does not involve the determination of fibrinogen, which reflects the blood clotting process. Coagulogram - analysis in which this indicator is determined.

When are protein levels elevated?

Albumin level:

if fluid loss occurs during infectious diseases;
for burns.

A-globulins:

for systemic connective tissue diseases ( , scleroderma);
with purulent inflammation in acute form;
for burns during the recovery period;
nephrotic syndrome in patients with glomerulonephritis.

B-globulins:

for hyperlipoproteinemia in people with diabetes;
with a bleeding ulcer in the stomach or intestines;
with nephrotic syndrome;
at .

Gamma globulins are elevated in the blood:

for viral and bacterial infections;
for systemic connective tissue diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, dermatomyositis, scleroderma);
for allergies;
for burns;
with helminthic infestation.

When is the level of protein fractions reduced?

in newborns due to underdevelopment of liver cells;
for lungs;
during pregnancy;
for liver diseases;
with bleeding;
in case of plasma accumulation in body cavities;
for malignant tumors.

Not only cell construction occurs in the body. They also break down, and in the process, nitrogenous bases accumulate. They are formed in the human liver and are excreted through the kidneys. Therefore, if the indicators nitrogen metabolism elevated, then there is likely to be a dysfunction of the liver or kidneys, as well as excessive breakdown of proteins. Basic indicators of nitrogen metabolism – creatinine , urea . Less commonly detected are ammonia, creatine, residual nitrogen, and uric acid.

Urea (urea)

glomerulonephritis, acute and chronic;
nephrosclerosis;
poisoning with various substances - dichloroethane, ethylene glycol, mercury salts;
arterial hypertension;
crash syndrome;
polycystic disease or kidney;

Reasons causing the decrease:

increased urine output;
administration of glucose;
liver failure;
decrease in metabolic processes;
starvation;
hypothyroidism

Creatinine

Reasons for the increase:

renal failure in acute and chronic forms;
decompensated;
acromegaly;
intestinal obstruction;
muscle dystrophy;
burns.

Uric acid

Reasons for the increase:

leukemia;
vitamin B-12 deficiency;
acute infectious diseases;
Vaquez disease;
liver diseases;
severe diabetes mellitus;
skin pathologies;
carbon monoxide poisoning, barbiturates.

Glucose

Glucose is considered the main indicator of carbohydrate metabolism. It is the main energy product that enters the cell, since the vital activity of the cell depends specifically on oxygen and glucose. After a person has eaten, glucose enters the liver, and there it is utilized in the form glycogen . These pancreatic processes are controlled - and glucagon . Due to a lack of glucose in the blood, hypoglycemia develops; its excess indicates that hyperglycemia is occurring.

Violation of blood glucose concentration occurs in the following cases:

Hypoglycemia

with prolonged fasting;
in case of malabsorption of carbohydrates - with enteritis, etc.;
with hypothyroidism;
for chronic liver pathologies;
with chronic adrenal insufficiency;
with hypopituitarism;
in case of overdose of insulin or hypoglycemic drugs taken orally;
with, insulinoma, meningoencephalitis, .

Hyperglycemia

for diabetes mellitus of the first and second types;
with thyrotoxicosis;
in case of tumor development;
with the development of tumors of the adrenal cortex;
with pheochromocytoma;
in people who practice treatment with glucocorticoids;
at ;
for injuries and brain tumors;
with psycho-emotional agitation;
if carbon monoxide poisoning occurs.

Specific colored proteins are peptides that contain metal (copper, iron). These are myoglobin, hemoglobin, cytochrome, cerulloplasmin, etc. Bilirubin is the end product of the breakdown of such proteins. When the existence of a red blood cell in the spleen ends, biliverdin reductase produces bilirubin, which is called indirect or free. This bilirubin is toxic, so it is harmful to the body. However, since its rapid connection with blood albumin occurs, poisoning of the body does not occur.

At the same time, in people who suffer from cirrhosis and hepatitis, there is no connection with glucuronic acid in the body, so the analysis shows a high level of bilirubin. Next, indirect bilirubin binds to glucuronic acid in liver cells, and it is converted into conjugated or direct bilirubin (DBil), which is not toxic. Its high level is observed when Gilbert's syndrome , biliary dyskinesias . If liver tests are performed, they may show high levels of direct bilirubin if liver cells are damaged.

Rheumatic tests

Rheumatic tests – a comprehensive immunochemical blood test, which includes a study to determine rheumatoid factor, an analysis of circulating immune complexes, and the determination of antibodies to o-streptolysin. Rheumatic tests can be carried out independently, as well as as part of studies that involve immunochemistry. Rheumatic tests should be carried out if there are complaints of joint pain.

conclusions

Thus, a general therapeutic detailed biochemical blood test is a very important study in the diagnostic process. For those who want to conduct a full extended HD blood test or OBC in a clinic or laboratory, it is important to take into account that each laboratory uses a certain set of reagents, analyzers and other equipment. Consequently, the norms of indicators may vary, which must be taken into account when studying what a clinical blood test or biochemistry results show. Before reading the results, it is important to make sure that the form issued by the medical institution indicates the standards in order to interpret the test results correctly. The norm of OAC in children is also indicated on the forms, but a doctor must evaluate the results obtained.

Many people are interested in: blood test form 50 - what is it and why take it? This is a test to determine the antibodies that are in the body if it is infected. An f50 analysis is done both when HIV is suspected and for the purpose of prevention in a healthy person. It is also worth properly preparing for such a study.