and target coordinates on the map

Study questions:

1. The concept of topographic maps, plans and diagrams

2. Measuring distances on a map

3. Image of local objects on topographic maps

4. Geographical and rectangular coordinates

5. Kilometer grid and its use

1st question: The concept of topographic maps, plans and diagrams

A topographic map is a detailed and accurate image of the terrain on a plane (paper), made with conventional symbols with all terrain lines reduced by 10, 25, 50 thousand times or more (up to a million).

Maps depicting the entire earth's surface or a significant part of it (continent, country) with a reduction of more than a million times are called geographical maps.

The ratio showing how many times all the linear dimensions of a terrain are reduced when depicting them on a map is called the map scale. The smaller this reduction, the larger the image of the area, and, consequently, the scale of the map, and vice versa. Obviously, the larger the scale of the map, the more detailed and accurate the terrain can be depicted on it.

An accurate and detailed image of individual small sections of terrain (up to 100 km in length and width), made by conventional signs with a decrease in the linear dimensions of the area by 10 thousand times or less, is called, in contrast to a map, a topographic plan.

Using large-scale topographic maps and plans, you can study the terrain in sufficient detail and accurately and navigate it, make the necessary measurements and calculations, and prepare data for firing and target designation.

Topographic maps are printed in separate sheets, the sizes of which are set for each scale. The side frames of the sheets are meridians, and the top and bottom frames are parallels. On all maps, the top frame always faces north. All this allows, if necessary, to easily glue together several adjacent sheets of map.

A simplified drawing that shows only some of the basic elements of the terrain that are important for performing a specific task is called a diagram. Schemes are usually drawn up by eye or according to an existing map and are used in the preparation of combat graphic documents for various purposes: target diagrams, route diagrams, report diagrams, etc.

2nd question: Measuring distances on a map

To measure distance on a map, you need to know its scale. The scale is always indicated below the bottom (south) frame of the map and is expressed numerically or graphically. In the first case it is called numerical, and in the second - linear scale(Fig. 1).

Inscription 1: 25,000 – numerical scale (reads “one twenty-five thousandth”). It means that all terrain lines are depicted on this map with a reduction of 25 thousand times, i.e. 1 cm on the map corresponds to 25,000 cm or 250 m on the ground. The distance corresponding to 1 cm on the map is called the scale value and is always inscribed on the map between the numerical and linear scales.

Rice. 1. Scale designation

When using a numerical scale, the distance on the map is measured in centimeters using a ruler with centimeter divisions. Then, knowing the scale value, i.e. the distance on the ground corresponding to 1 cm on the map, multiply by the number of centimeters measured on the map. For example, on a map of scale 1: 25000 the measured distance is 5.3 cm. This distance on the ground will be 250 m × 5.3 = 1325 m.

Even simpler - without any calculations - distances on the map are measured using a linear scale, using a compass or a strip of paper. They do it like this:

the legs of the compass are installed at points on the map, the distance between which needs to be determined;

without changing the solution of the compass, apply it to a linear scale so that one of the legs exactly coincides with zero or with the signed division to the right of zero, and the other is located on small divisions to the left of zero;

the sum of the readings read on the scale against both legs of the compass gives the required distance.

When plotting specified distances on a map, the procedure is reversed: set the required compass opening on a linear scale, then plot on the map from the indicated point in the desired direction a segment equal to the compass opening (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Methods for determining distance on a map

3rd question: Image of local objects

on topographic maps

All local items are shown on maps conventional signs. All conventional signs of local objects are divided into scale (contour), non-scale and explanatory.

Scale symbols such local objects are depicted, the dimensions of which are expressed on the scale of the map. Their dimensions (length, width, area) can be determined from a map, for example the size of a forest, meadow, swamp, etc. Each scale (contour) symbol consists of a contour, i.e. the border of a given object, for example the border of a forest, and additional designations inside the contour, showing which local object is located in this contour, for example, a forest, shrub, meadow, etc.

The outline of a forest, bush, meadow, or swamp is drawn on maps with dots (dotted lines).

Non-scale conditionalsigns smaller objects are depicted, the dimensions of which are not reflected on the map scale, for example, a well, a road sign, a kilometer pole, etc. Such objects are depicted on maps in an enlarged form. If the conventional sign looks like a symmetrical figure (factory, well, etc.), then the exact location on the map of the object depicted by the out-of-scale conventional symbol is determined by the center of the sign, and the asymmetrical figure (monument, separate stone, etc.) is determined by the middle grounds. If an off-scale conventional sign has a right angle at its base, then the depicted object is at the apex of the right angle (road sign, kilometer post, single tree, windmill, etc.). The axis of the road, depicted on the map by two lines, runs halfway between these lines.

Explanatory symbols are used to further characterize local items. An explanatory symbol shows, for example, what type of forest is, in which direction the river flows, etc.

In addition to explanatory symbols, the maps have explanatory inscriptions. For example, the symbol of a plant has the inscription “leather”. This means the factory is a tannery. Some symbols have digital designations, for example, for a bridge symbol, the fraction 15/10 shows that the length of the bridge (numerator) is 15 m, and the load capacity (denominator) is 10 tons.

Inscriptions are also used to indicate proper names of settlements, rivers, lakes, tracts, etc.

To make the map easier to read and more visual, the symbols are given, if possible, a shape that resembles the shape of the objects they depict (a single tree, a windmill, etc.). For the same purpose, maps are made in several colors: forests, gardens, parks are printed with green paint, water - blue, highways - red, improved dirt roads - orange, relief - with light brown lines.

When depicting railways on maps, indicate their characteristics (three-, two- and single-track), embankments and excavations, bridges, as well as all roadside structures (stations, depots, barracks, booths). Communication lines along railways are not shown.

When depicted on a map, horse-drawn roads are divided into motorways, highways, improved unpaved and unpaved (country, field or forest), as well as trails. The roads show cuts, embankments, bridges, communication lines, kilometer posts, road signs, casings. On improved dirt roads, their width is indicated in meters, and on highways, the width of the covered part (first number) and the entire road (second number in brackets), as well as the coating material (A - asphalt concrete, B - cobblestone, etc.).

In populated areas, all streets, squares, gardens, parks and buildings that have landmark significance are marked. Houses in populated areas are united into blocks, which are shaded.

Rivers on maps are depicted in one or two lines depending on their width. The width of the rivers (in meters) is indicated. On maps of scale 1: 25,000 and 1: 50,000, rivers less than 5 m wide are depicted in one line.

River flow speed (m/s) is written in the middle of the arrow showing the direction of flow. At fords they indicate: in the numerator - the depth of the ford in meters, in the denominator (letter) - the quality of the bottom soil (T - hard, V - viscous, P - sandy, K - rocky).

Canals less than 3 m wide are shown on the map as one line.

Relief image on maps. On topographic maps, relief is depicted as contour lines.

Rice. 3. Mountain section plan

Let's imagine a model of a mountain (Fig. 3), dissected by horizontal planes located one from the other at equal distances in height. Having traced the base of the mountain and all the resulting traces of the section with a pencil on paper, we obtain a series of curved closed lines connecting points with the same height above the base of the mountain.

Closed curved lines connecting points of the same height are called horizontals.

It is impossible to determine from horizontal lines alone in which direction the terrain is rising or falling. To indicate this direction, on some horizontal lines, short lines are placed perpendicular to them - ramp signs(slope pointers). They are always directed towards the downward direction of the slope.

The mountain and the basin are depicted as closed, encircling horizontal lines. The slope indicators in the first case (mountain) are located on the outside of the closed horizontal lines, and in the second (basin) they are directed inward.

The ridge and ravine are depicted as horizontal lines, elongated at the ridge in the downward direction, and at the ravine - in the upward direction.

A saddle is identified on the map by the presence of two nearby peaks and two valleys diverging in opposite directions.

4th question: Geographic and rectangular coordinates

Geographical coordinates. The Earth has the shape of a spheroid, that is, an oblate ball. Since the earth's spheroid differs very little from a sphere, this spheroid is usually called the globe.

The earth rotates around an imaginary axis and makes a full revolution in 24 hours. The ends of the imaginary axis are called poles: one of them is called north, and the other is called south.

Let us mentally cut the globe with a plane passing through the axis of rotation of the Earth. This imaginary plane is called meridian plane. The line of intersection of this plane with the earth's surface is called geographical(or true) meridian. You can draw as many meridians as you like, and they will all intersect at the poles.

A plane perpendicular to the earth's axis and passing through the center of the globe is called the plane of the equator, and the line of intersection of this plane with the earth’s surface is equator.

If you mentally cross the globe with planes parallel to the equator, then on the surface of the Earth you get circles called parallels.

The parallels and meridians marked on globes and maps are degree grid. The degree grid makes it possible to determine the position of any point on the earth's surface (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Degree grid of the earth's surface

When compiling maps in metric measures, the Greenwich meridian, passing through the Greenwich Observatory (near London), is taken as the prime meridian.

The position of any point on the earth's surface, for example a point A, can be determined as follows: the angle j between the equatorial plane and the plumb line from the point is determined A(a plumb line is a line along which bodies without support fall).

This angle j is called geographical latitude points A (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. Geographic latitude

Latitudes are measured along the arc of the meridian from the equator to the north and south from 0 to 90°. In the Northern Hemisphere, latitudes are positive, in the Southern Hemisphere they are negative.

Angle l enclosed between the planes of the prime meridian and the meridian passing through the point A, called geographical longitude points A(Fig. 6).

Rice. 6. Geographic longitude

Longitudes are measured along the arc of the equator or parallel in both directions from the prime meridian from 0 to 180°, to the east - with a plus sign, to the west - with a minus sign.

The geographic latitude and longitude of a point are called its geographical coordinates.

To completely determine the position of a point above the earth’s surface, it is necessary to know its third coordinate - height, measured from sea level.

Rectangular coordinates. In topography, the most widely used are the so-called rectangular coordinates. Let's take two mutually perpendicular lines on the plane - 0X And 0 Y. These lines are called coordinate axes, and the point of their intersection 0 – origin of coordinates.

The position of any point on the plane can be easily determined by specifying the shortest distances from the coordinate axes to the given point. The shortest distances are perpendiculars. The perpendicular distances from the coordinate axes to a given point are called coordinates of this point.

Lines parallel to the axis X, are called coordinates X, A parallel axes Y– coordinates u.

Rectangular coordinate system. The rectangular coordinates discussed are applied on a plane. This is where they got their name flat rectangular coordinates. This coordinate system is successfully used in small areas of terrain taken as a plane.

In order to apply a system of flat rectangular coordinates to the spherical surface of the globe, we have to make some conventions.

Since it is impossible to unfold the ball on a plane without breaks, the entire globe is conventionally divided by the lines of the earth's meridians into 60 zones.

In order to obtain a zone on a plane, it is projected onto a cylinder, and then this cylinder is expanded.

Strictly speaking, the area projected onto the cylinder will be somewhat distorted, especially at the edges, but this distortion is so slight that it can practically be ignored.

Having thus obtained a zone on a plane, a system of plane rectangular coordinates can be applied to it. Axis X is the middle (axial) meridian of the zone, and the axis Y – equator. The intersection of the axial meridian with the equator is called origin of coordinates. Each zone has its own origin. The zones are counted from the Greenwich meridian, which is western for the 1st zone.

This coordinate system is called system of rectangular coordinates.

Counting coordinates X is carried out in meters from the equator to the poles. Everything north of the equator X are positive (have a plus sign), to the south are negative (have a minus sign). It is obvious that throughout Europe and Asia the coordinates X are positive.

Counting coordinates at is carried out from the axial meridian. East of the central meridian coordinates at have a plus sign, to the west - a minus sign. This is associated with a number of inconveniences, since when writing down the coordinates, each time you must remember to put the appropriate sign. In order to get rid of signs, or rather, to have only one sign, we agreed to count the coordinate for the axial meridian not as zero, but as 500 km (500,000 m). As a result of this, the coordinates at within the entire zone have a plus sign, which can be discarded when recording without fear of confusion.

5th question: Kilometer grid and its use

Each sheet of the map occupies a small part of the zone, and therefore the origin of coordinates does not appear on the map. In order to be able to use coordinates, maps of scale 1: 10,000, 1: 25,000 and 1: 50,000 are marked with coordinate grids, i.e. squares with a side of 1 km (they are also called kilometer grids). On maps at a scale of 1: 100,000, squares with a side of 2 km are plotted.

The vertical grid lines are parallel to the axial meridian, and the horizontal lines are parallel to the equator. Horizontal kilometer lines are counted from bottom to top, and vertical kilometer lines are counted from left to right.

The tilt of the grid is explained by the fact that the western and eastern lines of the frame, which are geographical meridians, are not parallel to the axial meridian and form a certain angle with it, called convergence of meridians. But since all the vertical lines of the coordinate grid are parallel to the axial meridian, the entire grid will be inclined relative to the vertical lines of the frame at the same angle.

Let's look at the use of a coordinate grid using an example.

It is required to determine from the map the coordinates of the trigonometric point at an altitude of 141.5 (Fig. 7).

Rice. 7. Defining rectangular coordinates

First you need to determine the distance in meters from the equator to a given point. This will be the coordinate X; coordinate at this point will be the distance in meters from the central meridian (considering the central meridian to be 500,000 m). Whole kilometers are determined by the numbers outside the frame, and fractions of a kilometer (meters) are measured inside the square on the map scale.

Thus, the coordinates of the trigonometric point will be: x=5880700; y=5297300.

When working practically within one or two sheets of the map, to shorten the record, the first two digits are discarded, since they are repeated.

Therefore, the coordinates of the trigonometric point are: x=80 700, y= 97 300.

The whole world can fit on one piece of map, with all the oceans, continents, mountains and plains, countries, cities, minerals, animals and birds. You just need to be able to read the map correctly. In this lesson we will learn what maps were in ancient times, and what types of maps exist now, what are the advantages of a map over a globe, what is the scale, and the map legend. Let's learn how to use the scale of depths and heights and determine the coordinates of earthly objects.

Topic: The planet we live on

People started drawing maps before they even thought about whether the Earth was round or flat. Scientists have discovered a drawing on a bone in Kamchatka depicting a path to a place rich in prey. This is probably one of the oldest maps. Maps were drawn on pieces of bark and cut out on wooden planks, which were convenient to take on the road. Some peoples scratched maps with a sharp object on wet clay tiles, which, after drying, became durable, with a clear image.

This world map, in the center of which the city of Babylon is located, more than 3 thousand years.

Rice. 1. World map of Ancient Babylon ()

Rock paintings of areas in caves where people lived thousands of years ago were also found.

Rice. 2. Rock painting of the area ()

With the invention of paper, maps began to be drawn on it. All the information obtained by scientists and travelers during their travels through different lands was recorded on the maps.

Rice. 3. Ancient world map on paper ()

Making the map was a long process, because all the details were drawn by hand, so the maps were very expensive.

For a long period of time, only four were present on the maps: Eurasia, Africa, North America, South America. Many years passed before sailors discovered Australia and Antarctica.

When you look for a country on the globe, you only see one hemisphere. And to see something else, you need to turn the globe.

It is impossible to indicate a large number of geographical objects on a globe without increasing its size. A large globe is inconvenient for travel.

Scale- this is the ratio of the length of lines on a map or drawing to the actual length. The scale of the physical map of Russia tells us that every centimeter of the map corresponds to 200 km on the ground.

Rice. 7. Physical map of Russia ()

The map can show two halves of the Earth at once. If you divide the globe along the equator, you get map of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres,

Rice. 5. Northern and Southern Hemispheres

and if along the line of the prime meridian - Western and Eastern Hemispheres.

Rice. 6. Western and Eastern Hemispheres

On mineral map special icons mark places of mineral deposits.

Rice. 9. Map of mineral resources ()

On animal habitat maps The habitats of various species of birds and animals are indicated.

Rice. 10. Map of birds and animals ()

On contour maps there are no color codes and all kinds of geographical objects are depicted, but not labeled. They are convenient for planning routes.

Rice. 11. Outline map

On political map the world depicts countries and their borders.

Rice. 12. Political map of Eurasia ()

On synoptic maps Symbols indicate weather observations.

Rice. 13. Synoptic map ()

Different cards are combined into atlases.

Rice. 14. Geographical atlas ()

Maps depict different territories. There are maps of districts, cities, regions, states, continents, oceans, hemisphere maps and world maps.

Legend on the map are the same as on the globe. They're called legend and are usually placed at the bottom of the card.

Let's find the West Siberian Plain on the physical map of Russia.

Rice. 16. West Siberian Plain ()

Small horizontal lines covering a large part of its territory mean swamps.

Here are some of the world's largest swamps - Vasyugan. Lines represent rivers, borders and roads, and circles represent cities.

Rice. 17. Vasyugan swamps

The seas and mountains have real outlines and are painted in different colors. Blue and cyan are water bodies, yellow are highlands, green are lowlands, brown are mountains.

At the bottom of the map there is a scale of depths and heights, with which you can see what height or depth a particular shade of color on the map means.

The deeper the ocean, the darker the color. On the map of the Arctic Ocean, the darkest shade of blue is in the Greenland Sea, where the depth reaches 5 thousand 527 meters; the lightest shade of pale blue, where the sea depth is 200 meters.

Rice. 18. Physical map of the Arctic Ocean

The higher the mountains, the darker the color they are marked with. Thus, the Ural Mountains, which are considered relatively low (the highest peaks are from 1000 to 2000 m above sea level), are colored light brown on the map.

Rice. 19. Ural Mountains

The Himalayas - the highest mountains in the world (10 peaks with a height of more than 8 km) are indicated in dark brown.

Rice. 20. Himalayan mountains

Chomolungma (Everest), the highest peak in the world (8848 m), is located in the Himalayas.

Using the altitude scale, it is easy to determine the height of the Caucasus Mountains.

Rice. 23. Caucasus Mountains

Their brown color indicates that the height of the mountains is more than 5 thousand meters. The most famous peaks - Mount Elbrus (5642 m) and Mount Kazbek (5033 m) are covered with eternal snow and glaciers.

Using a map, you can determine the exact location of an object. To do this you need to know it coordinates: latitude and longitude, which are determined by a degree grid formed by parallels and meridians.

Rice. 26. Degree grid

The equator serves as the origin of reference - at it the latitude is 0⁰. Latitude is measured from 0⁰ to 90⁰ on both sides of the equator and is called north or south. For example, the coordinate 60⁰ north means that this point lies in the Northern Hemisphere and is at an angle of 60⁰ to the equator.

Rice. 27. Geographical latitude

Longitude is measured from 0⁰ to 180⁰ on both sides of the Greenwich meridian and is called western or eastern.

Rice. 28. Geographical longitude

Coordinates of St. Petersburg - 60⁰ N, 30⁰ E.

Moscow coordinates - 55⁰N, 37⁰E.

Rice. 29. Political map of Russia ()

1. Vakhrushev A.A., Danilov D.D. The world around us 3. M.: Ballas.
2. Dmitrieva N.Ya., Kazakov A.N. The world around us 3. M.: Fedorov Publishing House.
3. Pleshakov A.A. The world around us 3. M.: Education.

1. Academician ().
2. Survival().

1. Locate the Pacific Ocean on a physical map of the world. Determine its deepest place, indicate its name and depth. Describe how you identified this location.
2. Make a short test (4 questions with three answer options) on the topic “Geographical maps”.
3. Prepare a memo with the rules for working with cards.

What: Bike orienteeringRunning orienteeringTourist orientation Where:

04/02/2014 Orienteering technique, map reading section

Reading the map

The ability to read a map is a complex technical skill, the development and improvement of which continues throughout the entire time of orienteering. In the process of studying conventional signs, exercising with maps in the classroom and on the ground, and participating in competitions, athletes improve their understanding of the images on maps of landscape areas of different nature.

When studying in the classroom with three-dimensional models or on the ground, another important skill should gradually develop - recognizing landmarks on the ground and comparing them with a map, and vice versa. This is the basis for determining your location on the map and on the ground and is the essence of orienteering in general and orienteering in particular.

Memorizing symbols and acquiring map reading skills are facilitated by numerous exercises, for example, topographic dictations, playing topographic lotto, coloring black and white maps, tracing maps, finding specified symbols or time landmarks on maps. One of the most effective and comprehensive ways to quickly master the skills of reading a map, identifying landmarks on the ground, measuring distances and directions is the simplest topographical survey of the area.

On modern maps, highly saturated with details, it is sometimes difficult to find your location: a lot of similar landmarks catch your eye. Therefore, it is advisable to fold the map so that only the area of ​​one or two nearest checkpoints remains on it (Fig. 2). The thumb of the left hand holding the map should be directed along the line of movement, and the nail should fix the place marked by the orienteer as passed. This allows you to, without wasting time, pay attention to the area of ​​the terrain in which the athlete is currently located or which has yet to be covered. With certain training, this method helps to read the map without stopping.

Rice. 2

As you develop map reading skills, more and more attention should be paid to rough, or selective, reading. The essence of it is to understand the general picture of the area in a short time, then highlight on it the main, most clear and clearly visible landmarks, which are advisable to use as reference points on the way to advance to the chosen area. An example of such map abstraction and identification of reference landmarks is presented in Fig. 3.

Rice. 3

This is a section of terrain between checkpoints 6 and 7 at the men's distance of the second world championship (see map VII, where the path of the Swede S. Björk, who won the silver medal, is plotted). Here are Björk’s explanations of the “technology” for overcoming the stage:

“I often start by choosing the point from which it seems easiest to “take” the checkpoint. I think that in this case it was not possible to reach checkpoint 7 from the west due to the cliffs and hills located across the path. I chose “as a reference point” the swamp bay at point A. The second place I wanted to go was the ditch at point B. This allowed me to bypass a difficult area. Points B, A and CP 7 were big "brakes". It didn't really matter where to go between them In this case, I was running along the path. I covered section B-A roughly using a compass, counting steps to a large swamp, then followed the search for its “bay” and on solid ground the exit to A. From here - precise movement according to the compass, counting steps, and also reading the relief "by the thumb".

Let's look at another section of the terrain on the map of the first World Championship, held in 1966 in Finland (Map V). Difficult area: many rocky ridges oriented in different directions, “ram’s foreheads”, low hills, minor swamps. But KP 8 is installed relatively simply. In front of him to the left and right are two large reference landmarks - a lake and ditches. From checkpoint 7, experienced athletes could move towards them at high speed, almost without reading the map. Other checkpoints on the men's and women's tracks were also located close to the “braking” landmarks. This layout of the course was not accidental: the organizers of the first world forum of orienteers wanted all athletes, and not just the strongest, to successfully complete the distance, although it was not particularly difficult to position the checkpoints so that access to them would be a difficult task and require accurate reading of the map on all stages .

For example, at the stage we have chosen, it is enough that checkpoint 8 is located 450 m to the southwest, near a small hill, as shown on the map V as a dotted line. In such cases, dividing a stage into segments between supporting landmarks requires high technology, and sometimes this is simply impossible to do. Then the stage is overcome at a relatively low speed while accurately reading the map.

The technique of accurately reading a map without stopping is one of the most difficult elements of orienteering, which needs to be worked on every day, especially since the class of course leaders and the complexity of the routes are constantly increasing.

Here is what the Swedish specialist E. Jägerström says about this: “Reading a map is the primary companion of the work of thought and therefore the most attractive element of orienteering. Every small section of the route that encourages simply running to a large braking landmark means that the head of the course has “lost” here is some section of the route, freeing participants from reading the map. These sections are called “lost kilometers.”

Many athletes are well aware of the trends in the development of orienteering and distance preparation and work hard to improve their technical skills. A member of the USSR national team, master of sports V. Kiselev, himself an experienced race director, commented on the performance of our athletes at international multi-day competitions in Switzerland:

“We are not very much behind our foreign rivals in physical training. But we are behind in reading the map, in working near and on the control posts. We have little training with the map and few conditions for their implementation...”

The problems of improving sports performance and ways to implement them are defined quite precisely here. It is necessary to more actively participate in the work on equipping training grounds, creating training tracks, searching for new methods and means of training, and preparing multi-color maps. Orienteering athletes can fully accept the call of the Honored Master of Sports O. Goncharenko, addressed to fellow speed skaters: “Much depends on the coaches. But coaches should not be turned into nannies. The attitude of the athletes themselves to their training should be decisive. Their hard work, discipline, desire to better results."

Interesting training aimed at developing the technique of reading and memorizing maps is conducted in the orienteering section of the Moscow Higher Technical School named after. Bauman's coach is master of sports V. Golovkin. The class organizes activities aimed at memorizing the map, identifying reference points, and choosing travel routes. For this purpose, novice orienteers are given maps for a few minutes to view the stage, and then asked to reproduce everything that they managed to remember on a blank sheet of paper. For experienced orienteers, the viewing time is successively reduced to 30, 15 and 5 seconds.

Activities of a similar nature are carried out during cross training. Athletes run in pairs. The coach gives them a map of an arbitrary area, on which a route in a given direction is plotted. While running, one of the athletes studies the first stage, then passes the card to his partner and tells what he managed to remember; offers a way out to the checkpoint. The partner controls his story. Then the second athlete explores the area between the next pair of checkpoints, returns the map to the first one and tells him about the details of “his” area. So they work with the map until the last stage of the drawn route. At the end of the cross-country, the map is returned to the coach, and at home each orienteer sketches it out from memory in a workbook.

Athletes brothers S. and M. Lavrenyuk, who achieved high athletic results, helped us conduct a control test. To assess their memorization, they were offered several unfamiliar cards, which are presented in Fig. 2 and maps III, X, XI. Master of Sports S. Lavrenyuk won a bronze medal in the relay race at the 1975 national championship as part of the Moscow national team. M. Lavrenyuk - candidate master of sports. At the same championship, he won two silver medals among juniors - in the individual championship and the relay.

The test was carried out in a calm state in the afternoon, on a bench in the park. The subjects were presented with maps on which two CPs were connected by a straight line. It was indicated which CP was the initial one and which was the final one. Within 15 sec. the athletes studied the maps and then reproduced what they could remember on a blank sheet of paper. The results obtained are presented in Fig. 4a and 4b. What conclusions can be drawn?

Both orienteers in 15 seconds. had time to understand the general nature of the terrain in fairly large areas between checkpoints, 1.5-2.5 km apart from each other, had time to choose the route to the point and remember reference points along this path. Although the maps and the areas depicted on them were very different from each other, each athlete managed to remember (regardless of the map) 7-8 reference points. During reproduction, the main proportions between landmarks, both angular and linear, were maintained fairly well.

It is interesting to compare Fig. 4a and 46 with the original (see map III between CP 6 and 7). At first glance, the area seems simple: a small patch of forest among large open spaces. But take a closer look - the terrain is very difficult. It was the general outline of the area that the athletes depicted in their drawings. Both did not have time to understand the horizontal lines in detail, choose the path of movement and determine the reference points.

M. Lavrenyuk

Rice. 4a

Rice. 46

When comparing Fig. 4a and 46 with the original (see map XI between CP A and B) it is clear that both athletes managed not only to assess the nature of the area, the location of mountain slopes and streams, but also to outline the routes to the CP. M. Lavrenyuk chose the mouths of streams as the final reference point, at the headwaters of one of which the checkpoint is located. S. Lavrenyuk chose a different path - a path that goes around the slope and valley of the stream, and then leads without climbing to the area where the checkpoint is located. This path seems more preferable, since on the path chosen by M. Lavrenyuk, difficulties may be encountered when reaching the mouth of the stream and when climbing along it to the checkpoint.

In these tests, the playback time was not limited, but each time the athletes submitted the drawings after 3-4 minutes.

And here is the opinion of the Swedish specialist L. Gustavsson about memorizing the map. “Running, having memorized the drawing of a map, is a controversial technique. Many believe that memorization requires more time than simply looking at the map, when this is necessary at the real stage. The factor of unreliability cannot be ruled out: a person overestimates his memory and runs incorrectly. Meanwhile, some This form of map reading is quite suitable for athletes, and through repeated training they can remember exactly those details that are essential. In my opinion, the greatest benefit from memorizing the map will be in relay orienteering, where in a hurry the athlete is not inclined to look at the map too much. In addition, ", before taking a checkpoint, it is also useful to study the map in order to get an idea of ​​​​the area where it is located and the routes to approach it."

It is interesting to compare this opinion with what was expressed by S. Lavrenyuk, who was not familiar with the work of L. Gustavsson and, moreover, did not analyze the results of his studies on the card reading technique: “When the relay race is played with piercing the CP at the first stage, I notice , that they are still working with the cards, and my brother and I are already running to the track."

The coach of the Norwegian national team, V. Lorentzen, also believes that the development of “map memory” allows you to cover the distance faster. “In orienteering,” he writes in a book on orienteering training, “you have to avoid the slightest loss of time. If you feel unsure, you are forced to stop often and reorient yourself. To avoid this, you need to remember most of the route. But on difficult sections of the distance you need to check yourself on the map."

Map memorization training contributes to the overall development of memory and observation skills, which is necessary for successful orienteering. Winter competitions on a marked course are an excellent means of developing these qualities and at the same time testing them. In some critical situations that arise in both summer and winter, for example, when losing orientation, developed powers of observation and good memory help to recreate pictures of the areas covered and determine the area of ​​the true location.

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The navigator is acting up, but you need to get from point A to point B without getting lost? There is no need to admit defeat and seek help. Take out the good old map from the glove compartment! Whether you're hiking in the mountains or planning to cross the country in your car, knowing how to work with a map is a very practical and useful skill for everyone. Contrary to popular belief, there is nothing difficult about this. Understand key symbols like scale, latitude, longitude, and topographic lines to easily identify any route on a map.

Steps

Part 1

How to read a map

Select the appropriate type of card. Different cards are used for different purposes. Before using a map to determine your route, it is important to make sure you are using the correct type of map.

• Thus, road maps make it easier to travel on highways and country roads, topographic maps help travelers get to campsites and campgrounds, and tourist maps allow tourists to quickly find famous attractions.
• Cards are sold anywhere: at gas stations, newsstands, tourist centers, cafes and train stations.

1. Check the position of the card. Open the map and make sure you are looking at it from the right angle. Usually in one of the corners of the map you can find an image of a compass, from which it is easy to determine the directions of all symbols on the map. Unless otherwise noted, north is at the top of the map.

   • North is considered to be a “neutral” reference point that allows you to determine other directions. Travelers use the north to determine their location.

2. Study the map legend (symbols). In addition to the compass image, many maps contain a legend, or table, explaining the scientific methods that were used to create the map, as well as a list of the meanings of important symbols. Study the legend to accurately understand the information depicted on the map.

   Consider longitude and latitude. Meridians of longitude are geographic coordinates that indicate the position of a point on the Earth's surface in the east-west direction relative to the prime meridian. The meridians go from the North Pole to the South Pole vertically (or vice versa, from the South Pole to the North Pole). Parallels of latitude are located horizontally parallel to the equator (the “belt” of the globe) and measure the distance north or south of the equator. The numbers on the four sides of the map correspond to the degrees of longitude and latitude. Each degree includes 60 minutes (in this case, a unit of distance, not travel time), and each minute is equal to 1 nautical mile (approximately 1.85 kilometers).

   • The equator and prime meridian are chosen as convenient landmarks, since they are located approximately in the center of the globe.
   • If you have a trip to a neighboring city, then you don’t have to think about latitude and longitude. When traveling long distances, they become invaluable assistants and allow you to clarify your location.

3. Consider the scale. Scale allows you to determine the relationship between the distance on the map and the actual distance in order to calculate distances to objects. Each map usually uses a different scale, which is indicated as a ratio like "1:100,000". This designation makes it clear that 1 unit of distance on the map is equal to 100,000 units in the real world.

Part 2

How to navigate on the map

Determine your location. If you are on the road, the easiest way is to pay attention to the nearest road signs and find the corresponding marks on the map. If there are no noticeable objects nearby, then try to compare the surrounding area with the images on the map. Mark your location so you can move in the right direction.

Check the map's compass position (optional). If you are using a compass, it is important to properly calibrate it to your surroundings to take into account possible changes in magnetic attraction (usually such anomalies are always indicated on the map). Sometimes this step is called declination. It is much easier to navigate in place when you just need to turn your head in the right direction.

Designate your destination. Circle the place you want to get to on the map, and then determine the distance between the starting point and the ending point. Then use the zoom and choose a route that will get you to your destination in the shortest possible time.

• Determine the distance using the scale to accurately track your movements.

1. Get directions. Now it is enough to choose roads and paths that will lead you from point A to point B. The shortest distance between two points is always a straight line between them. Therefore, it is better to use a direct route with a minimum number of detours.

2. Follow the chosen route to your destination. Now you can focus on the journey itself. Move confidently and mark every kilometer left behind, checking the map from time to time. Do not deviate from your intended route unless you have chosen a different route in advance.

   • Usually the route chosen is a matter of preference. Sometimes you need to rush to get to your destination on time, while other times you can enjoy the view and take in the sights.
   • If you are traveling in a group, then choose one person who will be responsible for navigation so as not to argue or get confused when working with the map.

3. Use checkpoints to stay on track. As you move, mark your new locations on the map with a pencil or pen. Place a dot, asterisk, or other symbol next to each prominent landmark. This way you can always determine your location by the last control point if you need to turn back.

   • At each stop, note the distance traveled and calculate the remaining distance to your destination.

• Always keep the card in a convenient and accessible place.
• Laminate backcountry maps to protect the paper from rain, hail, and snow.
• Update your maps every few years to ensure they reflect all changes.
• Before your road trip, buy a set of road maps for your region. They will contain the names and symbols of all motorways and many country roads, which may be useful if the navigator fails.

Warnings

• Make sure the card remains intact. A damaged card may be useless!
• Stick to the roads and paths that are shown on the map. Sometimes it is tempting to take a shortcut or drive in a straight line, but the further into the wilderness that is not mapped, the more difficult it is to get out.

Instructions

Look carefully at the topographic, it is a sheet of paper with an image of the earth's surface printed on it. All objects of the mapped area of ​​the terrain are depicted by conventional signs - these are symbolic, area or line images of terrain objects. Conventional signs basic information. Using them, you can get complete information about the depicted area: names of settlements, rivers, mountains, forests.

In addition to names, they also depict various forms of relief: mountains and their heights, and their character, valleys, dells, etc. Mountains are depicted on the map as isolines, i.e. lines connecting points with the same heights. Using a topographic map, you can determine the height of the mountains and determine the type of slopes.

In addition to the relief, the map also depicts hydrographic objects (rivers, lakes, seas, reservoirs, canals, streams, springs and wells). Using a topographic map you can get quite a lot of information about these objects. For example, you can determine the length of a river, its direction, its tributaries and the shape of its banks.

Having carefully examined the map, you will notice that the image of the area itself has a grid of squares in the form of the intersection of thin lines. This is the inner frame of the card sheet. The southern and northern sides of this frame are segments of parallels, the western and eastern are segments of meridians, the value of which is determined by the general system of layout of topographic maps. The values ​​of the longitude of the meridians and the latitude of the parallels limiting the map sheet are signed near the corners of the frame: longitude on the continuation of the meridians, latitude on the continuation of the parallels.

If you pay attention, any topographic map has a frame and behind the frame there is also information about the area. For example, the scale of the map shows how many times the image of the area is reduced when depicted on the map. Our country has adopted a standard range of map scales: 1:1,000,000, 1:500,000, 1:200,000, 1:100,000, 1:50,000, 1:25,000, 1:10,000. Knowing the scale, you can determine the distance on the terrain and the length of the lines. To do this, the scale base is divided by 100. So, at a scale of 1:10000, 1 cm of the map is 100 meters on the ground.

In addition to all these elements, all topographic maps contain a certain number of elements that carry information, but this information is important and understandable only for a narrow circle of specialists (cartographers, topographers, surveyors).
This property of topographic maps as documentation allows them to be used as a source of detailed data about the mapped area and a reliable means for orientation, and to study a wide variety of territories using them.