Alfonso XIII was brought up under the direct supervision of two women: his mother, Queen Maria Christina, and her aunt, Infanta Isabel, who had a strong influence on the development of his personality. Without a doubt, they patronized the willful character of young Alphonse, who from early childhood demonstrated lordly manners. The future king grew up in a strict and prim atmosphere, imbued with a strong clerical spirit and practically protected from external trends. Unlike his father, who studied in Vienna and England during his exile, Alfonso XIII grew up in Spain and was taught by a group of selected teachers. Most of them were military men, nobles and priests. Yet, over the course of his reign, he managed to break through this isolation. He often traveled abroad and strengthened relations with other European countries, especially, after his marriage to Victoria Eugenia, with the English court.
Despite his extremely elitist upbringing, which significantly isolated him from the outside world, after his coronation Alfonso XIII showed himself to be an extremely liberal, European-minded monarch, ready for renewal. His aunt, Infanta Eulalia, wrote in her Memoirs: “His main merit and proof of his talent is that he overcame his upbringing and managed to become a liberal, although he grew up among those who always agreed with him and was exposed to unhealthy influences , on the basis of which he, strictly speaking, should have become an autocrat.”
Not being an authoritarian monarch, he, however, knew how to cope with parliamentary liberalism. However, he still failed to dissociate himself from the dictatorship of General Primo de Rivera and open the country to democracy. Perhaps this partly explains the fall of the monarchy in 1931 and the king's lifelong exile.
Although Alfonso XIII cannot be called an intellectual, we can say with complete confidence that he was an enlightened, cultural polyglot monarch. He was fluent in German, French, English and Italian. But still, his main passion was various sports (primarily horse riding, sailing and auto racing). He had very good physical characteristics. According to one biographer, he was “slender but muscular, without excess fat, broad-chested and hairy, as one might guess from his blond appearance, but his mustache was just a pitiful tuft of hair, reminiscent of two sharp mouse tails.”
When the reign of Alfonso XIII began in 1902, the wounds caused by the loss of the last colonies: Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines had not yet healed. The end-of-the-century crisis provoked a violent reaction from a group of intellectuals and politicians to the general backwardness of the country. It was proposed to focus on Europe, without abandoning national characteristics, and to renew political life. Alfonso XIII himself, who was called an innovative monarch, became one of the initiators of this policy and on numerous occasions contrasted royal Spain with the future of official Spain, which was dominated by an oligarchy, ruled by cliques of local bosses, “caciques,” the church and the army, which enjoyed enormous power. It was not for nothing that they formed the backbone and support of the system of government of former Prime Minister Canovas del Castillo, who died in 1897.
Just three years after his coronation, Alfonso XIII was already faced with the first institutional conflict that arose as a result of the army's intervention in political life. In November 1905, a group of officers attacked the editorial office of the newspaper La Veu de Catalunya, the mouthpiece of the separatist Catalan party Lliga. It was about retaliation for a series of articles and cartoons published by this newspaper and the weekly Cut-Cut in which the army was subjected to satirical attacks and criticism. This event not only led to the fall of the liberal Prime Minister Eugenio Montero Rios, but also led to the adoption in May 1906 of the Law on Judicial Procedure, which limited freedom of speech and gave military courts the right to conduct trials in the case of expression of punishable opinions concerning the military . This law violated the unity of jurisdiction provided for by the Constitution of 1876 and at the same time served to strengthen the corporatist spirit of the military, as well as their influence on political institutions, which, on occasion, could even lead to military dominance. The king never dared to speak out against the military, and they could always count on his support, even when the conflict with the government or political parties was their fault.
Another event that contributed to the crisis of the system and forced the monarch to intervene also concerned the army and, above all, colonial policy in North Africa. The general opposition to the Moroccan War found its clearest expression in the so-called "tragic week" in Barcelona, between 26 and 31 July 1909, during which the masses were outraged by the government's decision to send reservist units to defend the city of Melilla, which was violently stormed by Rif tribes. Deep antipathy towards the army and government policies in Morocco mixed with social protest and anti-clerical feelings among a large part of Barcelona's inhabitants. Therefore, the king was faced with a serious task: in violation of the practice of agreed rotation of governments, to replace the conservative Prime Minister Antonio Maura with the liberal Sigismundo Moret, without which the government crisis threatened to worsen.
In view of the fierce campaign launched abroad against Maura and supported by the majority of the Spanish parties, Alfonso XIII had no choice but to sacrifice this conservative politician. He was made responsible for the execution of the anarchist Francisco Ferrer Guardia, accused without sufficient evidence of being the instigator of violent attacks during the "tragic week." This position of the monarch, taken by him in order to avoid conflict with half of Spain and the European world, did not please the leader of the conservatives. He never forgave the king for interfering in government affairs.
Best of the day
The appointment of the liberal José Canalejas as Prime Minister in 1910 can also be characterized as the intervention of the monarch. This was done without consulting Moret or Montero Rios, the two leaders of the most important factions within the Liberal Party. But, undoubtedly, there was a brilliant choice, which proved the spirit of renewal and progressive sentiments of the monarch. Alphonse not only placed his trust in this restoration politician, who with the greatest zeal sought the integration of republicans and socialists into the political system. He also secured support for his reform activities, much criticized by the church and the army, during the two years of Canalejas's reign.
To better understand this king's desire for intervention, it is necessary to bear in mind that in the complex political system of the Restoration era the monarch occupied a central position and, like almost all his colleagues in Europe, had very wide constitutional powers, as well as important powers in military affairs and foreign affairs. politics, sharing sovereignty with the Cortes. His main influence on politics was undoubtedly based on his decisive role in the formation of the government, in which he used the so-called "royal prerogatives" to appoint and remove the head of government. His goal was to facilitate a coordinated change of government and to “convene” new Cortes, in which the party that came to power would have a sufficient majority to dominate.
This system, which assigned the role of the king not as a mediator but as a political instrument for the formation of government, strongly subordinated the government to the monarch and supported the crown's tendency to interfere in internal party affairs. During the reign of Alfonso XIII, interference in government affairs occurred quite often. Examples include the forced resignation of Maura in 1909, the pressure exerted by the crown in matters of the army and foreign policy, the unjustifiably frequent creation without the cooperation of parliament of a “concentration government” between 1918 and 1923, and the unfounded objections of Alfonso XIII to the liberal “concentration” in 1922 and 1923. During the crisis of the restoration era, dynastic parties began to split into many factions. In most cases, it was the king who had to decide which of the liberal or conservative groups would transfer government responsibility. And Alphonse invariably found himself in a difficult situation, causing hostile reactions from disadvantaged political groups. In addition, he was accused of interfering in internal affairs and favoring some candidates over others, since the appointed head of government was expected to also take over party leadership. This was the case, for example, in 1913 with the appointment of Datos to replace Maur, or with the appointment of Count Romanones to replace Manuel García Prieto in the same year.
But first, a historical excursion into the history of Spain and the Spanish royal family.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the Kingdom of Spain was in a state of deep decline and crisis. The country entered the twentieth century as a stagnant semi-feudal state with strong interethnic, interclass and, as a consequence, ideological hostility. The army, which was actually a state within a state, had a special position in the state. King Alfonso XIII and his government were not going to carry out the reforms necessary for the country. Any attempts to protest against the regime were brutally suppressed by troops and the Civil Guard (militarized police). In 1931, the monarchy fell in Spain: on April 12, free municipal elections were held in the state; in large cities, the triumph of opposition parties was beyond doubt, although in rural areas the monarchists were still in the lead. Influenced by numerous demonstrations of supporters of the republican form of government, Alfonso XIII emigrated on April 14, but did not formally abdicate the throne. Spain was proclaimed a republic. The uncertain policies of the provisional government plunged Spain into a series of acute political crises: from 1931 to 1936, the republic experienced more than 20 government crises. Attempts were made to change the government system twice. Under the current conditions, the military decides to take power in order to establish a dictatorship and rid Spain of the “Red Menace.” The rebellion against the Republican government began on the evening of July 17, 1936 in Spanish Morocco.
On September 29, 1936, elections took place for a new leader among the rebel generals, in which Franco won - he was young, energetic, smart, had no political preferences - unlike other generals, he was neither a Falangist (Spanish Phalanx Party), nor a monarchist, nor a right-wing Republican. He was given the rank of generalissimo and the title of caudillo (chief).
Alfonso XIII (May 17, 1886, Madrid - February 28, 1941, Rome) - King of Spain (1886-1931), grandfather of the now reigning King Juan Carlos I and Victoria Eugenia Battenberg (full name Victoria Eugenia Julia Ena) (October 24, 1887, Balmoral, Scotland - April 15, 1969, Lausanne, Switzerland) - Princess of the Battenberg family, after her marriage Queen Consort of Spain. Grandmother of the current reigning King Juan Carlos I.
Unlike most of the world's monarchs, Alfonso reigned from birth (he was born after the death of his father Alfonso XII on May 17, 1886 and was immediately proclaimed king), but not until his death (he was expelled from the country by the 1931 revolution). The king's adolescence and youth coincided with the Spanish-American War, the loss of Cuba and the Philippines, and the beginning of a political crisis in the country - during the years of his reign, anarchists killed four prime ministers of Spain. In 1902, the 16-year-old monarch was declared an adult. During the Spanish flu pandemic that raged in the final months of World War I in 1918, the king also fell ill but recovered. On June 3, 1928, he was awarded the rank of British field marshal.
Alfonso was married from 1906 to Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg, daughter of Henry of Battenberg and granddaughter of Queen Victoria. During the wedding, an attempt was made on the newlyweds. After the assassination attempt, the queen withdrew into herself and was unpopular in her new homeland. Her married life improved when she gave birth to a son and heir, Alfonso, Prince of Asturias. However, the happiness was overshadowed by the discovery of hemophilia in the child. After the birth of their children, the relationship between Ena and Alfonso worsened, the king had affairs on the side. (Alfonso had six illegitimate children from different mistresses.) Of the king's four sons, the eldest, Infante Alfonso, and the youngest, Gonzalo, suffered from hemophilia and both died after accidents before reaching the age of 30. The king's second son, Jaime, who is relevant to our story, was deaf and mute.
Shortly before his death in 1941, Alfonso XIII formally abdicated the Spanish throne (which he did not do during exile) in favor of his only healthy son, Juan, Count of Barcelona (the hemophiliac sons were no longer alive by this time). Alfonso XIII died on February 28, 1941 in Rome.
The Queen devoted herself to charity. She took part in the organization of the Spanish Red Cross. She was the 976th Dame of the Royal Order of Queen Marie Louise. In 1923, Pope Pius XI awarded her the Golden Rose.
Alfonso XIII hoped that his voluntary exile could prevent a civil war between Republicans and Nationalists, and the royal family went into exile. They moved to France, then to Italy. Ena and Alfonso lived separately, she lived in the UK and in Switzerland. In 1939, after the outbreak of World War II, Ena left Britain and purchased the chateau Vieille Fontaine, near Lausanne.
At the christening of Prince Philip, 1968.
In 1938, the whole family gathered in Rome for the baptism of Don Juan's eldest son, Don Juan Carlos. Ena returned to Spain briefly in February 1968 to become godmother to her great-grandson, Don Felipe, son of Don Juan Carlos and Princess Sofia. Ena died in Lausanne on April 15, 1969, aged 81. She was buried in the Sacré-Coeur church in Lausanne. On April 25, 1985, her remains were returned to Spain and reburied in the royal tomb of El Escorial, next to the remains of her husband. Ena's grandson, Juan Carlos is the current King of Spain. She was also the godmother of Albert II, the reigning Prince of Monaco.
By the way, here’s a photo: Grace Kelly with her husband’s godmother, Queen Victoria Eugene of Spain, at a fashion show (year not specified).
Queen Victoria Eugenie and King Alfonso XIII had seven children: five sons (two of them were hemophiliacs) and two daughters, none of whom carried the gene for the disease. Both hemophiliac sons, Alphonse and Gonzalo, died in minor (for a healthy person) car accidents from internal bleeding.
- Alphonse ( 1907 — 1938 ), Prince of Asturias and the Count of Covadonga, a hemophiliac, was twice married; have no children.
- Jaime ( 1908 — 1975 ), Duke of Segovia, deaf and dumb, married twice; pretender to the French throne
- Beatrice ( 1909 — 2002 ), married to Alessandro Torlonia;
- Fernando ( 1910 — 1910 ),
- Maria Christina ( 1911 — 1996 ), married to Enrico Marone-Cinzano;
- Juan ( 1913 — 1993 ), Count of Barcelona; pretender to the Spanish throne, father of Juan Carlos I.
- Gonzalo ( 1914 — 1934 ), hemophiliac.
Only two of them are relevant to our story: Infante Jaime and Infante Juan .
His Royal Highness Prince Jaime Leopoldo Isabelino Enrique Alejandro Alberto Alfonso Victor Acasio Pedro Pablo Maria de Bourbon y Battenberg (La Granja, Segovia, June 23, 1908 - St. Gallen, Switzerland, March 20, 1975)
The second son of King Alfonso XIII and Victoria Eugenia was born in the Royal Palace of La Granja de San Ildefonso (Segovia). At the age of four he fell ill and, after surgery for double mastoiditis, became deaf.
Royal Palace of La Granja (Segovia), Spain.
His father demanded Jaime give up the throne. And he, under pressure from his father, renounced his rights to the throne on June 23, 1933. Alfonso XIII did not consider it possible for a deaf person to occupy the throne if the monarchy were restored in Spain. From then on he bore the title of Duke of Segovia. He inherited his father's dynastic rights to the throne of France (1941-1975) and was known as the Duke of Anjou to French monarchists. His supporters recognized him as Henry VI of France and Navarre.
Petra Maria Josephine Juana Victoria Emanuela de Dampierre and Ruspoli (November 8, 1913 – May 3, 2012)
Jaime and Emanuela de Dampierre on the steps of the church.
Jaime married on March 4, 1935 (after his abdication), in the Church of San Ignacio de Loyola in Rome, to Petra Maria Josephine Juana Victoria Emanuela de Dampierre and Ruspoli (1913 - 2012), daughter of Roger de Dampierre, a French nobleman, and Carrabie (1892 - 1975), Viscount de Dampierre, Duke-Bishop of San Lorenzo Nuovo and Viterbo, and his first wife, Italian princess Vittoria Ruspoli of Poggio Suasa (1892 - 1982). Emanuela was a descendant of the ancient House of Dampierre, related to the House of Bourbon through the Marquis de Dampierre Archambaud, Duke of Bourbon from 1216. According to her mother, the Ruspoli family descends from one of the oldest and most prestigious dynasties in Italy. But still it was not a royal marriage: not royal blood in her veins (her father was a nobleman, without royal ancestors, and her mother was the daughter of an Italian prince, but also American mothers). And according to the strict rules of the Spanish royal family, the marriage was not equal, and the children were not heirs to the throne. Everything is so confusing in this life! (Former kings and queens should look at how things stand with marriage now in royal houses - at the time the slogan “The cook rules the state” was put into practice).
They had two children:
- Alfonso, Duke of Anjou, Duke of Cadiz (1936 - 1989).
- Gonzalo, Duke of Aquitaine (1937 - 2000).
Sons with mother.
Infante Jaime and Emanuela de Dampierre divorced May 4, 1947 in Bucharest, Romania. The divorce decree was confirmed on June 3, 1949 in Turin, Italy, in a civil trial, but not in a church trial. In Spain she was still the wife of the Infante Jaime de Bourbon of Battenberg, and later his widow.
On August 3, 1949, in Innsbruck, Austria, Don Jaime remarried the divorced singer Charlotte Louise Auguste Tiedemann.
On December 6, 1949, Jaime de Borbon tried to challenge his rights to inherit the throne of Spain. He declared his abdication invalid and made under pressure from his father. The Count of Barcelona, the main contender for the throne, was previously an enemy of Franco and participated in a conspiracy against him. Juan Carlos and his brother Alfonso, by agreement between Franco and the Count of Barcelona, received their education in Spain. Jaime did not recognize his brother Juan Carlos, Count of Barcelona, as head of the Royal House of Spain. It was only on July 19, 1969, when Prince Juan Carlos was appointed as a successor by dictator Francisco Franco Bahamonde, that Prince Jaime ceased his demands, although his son Alfonso also claimed the post. Moreover, in the line of succession this Alfonso is “cooler” than Juan Carlos, since he is the son of the 2nd son of the last king, and Juan Carlos is the son of only the 3rd son.
Prince Alfonso, who could have become king instead of Juan Carlos
Jaime de Bourbon died in a clinic in the canton of St. Gallen, Switzerland, on March 20, 1975. Ten years later, King Juan Carlos I ordered his remains to be transferred to the monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial.
When World War II began, Emanuela served two years in Rome as a Red Cross nurse in the Women's Medical Corps of the Italian Red Cross. On November 21, 1949, in Vienna, Austria, she married Royal Army Lieutenant Antonio Sozzani (1918-2007), who was the son of the famous Italian banker Cesare Alemani Sozzani.
Antonio Sozzani.
The civil marriage to Antonio Sozzani ended in 1967. They did not file for divorce. Both of Emanuela's sons were raised and educated by her second husband.
Emanuela de Dampierre with her grandson Luis Alfonso de Borbón Martínez-Bordiú.
Her funeral took place in the Val-de-Grâce church in Paris May 11, 2012, presided over by the Bishop of Versailles.
And another participant in our story is Infante Juan Carlos, Count of Barcelona.
His Royal Highness the Infante Don Juan Carlos Teresa Silvestre Alfonso de Borbon y Battenberg, Count of Barcelona (20 June 1913 – 1 April 1993) was a Spanish prince, pretender to the throne, father of King Juan Carlos I.
Her Royal Highness Infanta Maria Mercedes of Spain, Countess of Barcelona, née Princess of Bourbon-Sicily, wife of Infanta Juan, Count of Barcelona (23 December 1910 - 2 January 2000) - mother of King Juan Carlos I of Spain.
Count of Barcelona in his youth. And he is with his son Juan Carlos.
He left the country with his father in 1931. Served in the British Navy. Before his death in 1941 in Rome, Alfonso XIII abdicated the throne in favor of Juan, who had previously been considered the heir to the throne (Alfonso's eldest hemophiliac son was no longer alive, in addition, he renounced his rights by marrying a commoner; the second son, the deaf and dumb Don Jaime, Duke of Segovia, preferred to be considered the head of the French royal house). After this, Don Juan, who lived in Lausanne (Switzerland) and Estoril (Portugal), was a contender for the Spanish throne as “Juan III” and opposed the Franco regime.
Juan Carlos with his parents and sisters.
In 1969, Francisco Franco announced don Juan's son, Prince Juan Carlos, as his successor while his father was alive. This decision was not recognized by the Count of Barcelona and most of the royal houses of Europe, and after Franco's death in 1975 and the accession of Juan Carlos I to the throne, Don Juan continued to not recognize his son as king.
With General Franco and his son.
In 1977, following the king's refusal to succeed Franco's regime, the Count of Barcelona returned to Spain, renounced his claims and recognized his son's rights, retaining his title.
The King and Queen of Spain, the Count and Countess of Barcelona, King Paul of Greece, Sofia's father, and her sister Princess Irene.
In 1978, the King of Spain awarded him the title of Honorary Admiral of the Fleet.
Mary was the daughter of Prince Carlos of Bourbon-Sicily, infanta of Spain, grandson of King Ferdinand II and his second wife, Princess Louise of Orléans, daughter of Prince Philippe, Count of Paris, pretender to the French throne. From birth she held the title of Infanta of Spain (although she did not use it) and Princess of Bourbon-Sicily. Her family moved to Seville when her father became a military captain in the province. When the Second Spanish Republic began, they were forced to leave. They lived in Cannes and then in Paris, where she studied art at the Louvre.
On January 14, 1935, she was present in Rome at the wedding of Infanta Beatrice, daughter of Alfonso XIII. Here she met her second cousin and future husband, brother of the bride, Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona, fourth son of Alfonso XIII. They married in Rome on October 12, 1935. When her husband assumed the royal title of Count of Barcelona in 1942, Maria received the title of Countess of Barcelona.
They had four children:
Family of the Count of Barcelona.
Don Juan de Borbon and Battenberg and Mrs. Maria de las Mercedes de Borbon and Orleáns in the City Weathervane
They lived in Cannes and Rome, and with the outbreak of World War II, they moved to Lausanne to live with Queen Victoria Eugenie, mother of Juan Carlos. After that they lived in Estoril in Portugal.
In 1976, a year after the restoration of the monarchy in Spain, when her son became king of Spain, they returned to Spain. She became an intermediary between her son and her husband, since the latter refused to return to Spain. In 1977, Don Juan renounced his rights to the throne of Spain in favor of his son, who officially allowed him to retain the title of Count of Barcelona.
Maria broke her hip in 1982 and her left femur in 1985, forcing her to remain in a wheelchair for the rest of her life. Widowed in 1993.
She was known as an ardent fan of fighting bulls and Andalusian culture. In 1995, her granddaughter Infanta Elena married in Seville, partly because of the Countess's love for the city.
The infanta died of a heart attack at the royal residence of La Mareta on the island of Lanzarote, where the royal family was staying for the New Year holidays. She was buried with queen's honors in the royal crypt of the monastery of San Lorenzo del Escorial, near Madrid.
Royal Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial .
Alfonso X the Wise- eldest son of the King of Castile Fernando III of Castile . He was one of the most famous rulers of medieval Spain, distinguished by a breadth of interests, depth of knowledge and poetic talent that was rare for a ruler. While still a prince, he took part in the battles of the Reconquista (in particular, he led the reconquest of Murcia). In an effort to increase the prestige of Castile in Europe, Alfonso fought for the crown of the Holy Roman Empire (to which he had rights through his mother Beatrice of Swabia ). However, he did not receive the support of the popes Gregory X And Nicholas III and had to abandon his plan.
Governing body Alfonso X, marked by unrest, riots and serious crises, was complex and contradictory. The king himself was a generous and magnanimous man, but too devoted to empty vanity and luxury. Moreover, he often lacked firmness in pursuing his line. He preferred scientific pursuits to military expeditions and through many works in this field he earned the nickname of the Wise from his contemporaries and descendants. He spared no expense for the university in Salamanca, established new departments here, increased its privileges and, in the end, gave this Castilian educational institution so much importance and splendor that it began to compete with the famous universities of Paris and Bologna.
Contribution Alfonso in the formation of the Castilian literary language is difficult to overestimate. Important place in literary creativity Alfonso Also occupied by religious poetry in Galician-Portuguese. Of the 462 songs he composed, 420 are poetic narratives about the miracles of the Mother of God, united in the collection Cantigas de S. MarTa (Songs in honor of the Blessed Mary). Some of the plots of these songs were subsequently widely used in fiction.
Alfonso X the Wise
(Alfonso X of Castile)
November 23, 1221 - April 4, 1284
Spanish Alfonso X el Sabio, Spanish Alfonso X de Castilla
King of the Algarve |
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April 1, 1257 - 1273 |
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| Predecessor | — |
| Successor | Sancho IV of Castile |
| Place of Birth | Toledo |
| A place of death | Seville |
| Religion | Roman Catholicism |
| Burial place | Seville Cathedral |
| Father | Fernando III of Castile |
| Mother | Elisabeth von Hohenstaufen |
| Genus | Burgundian dynasty |
| Wife | Violante of Aragon |
| Children | Fernando |
| Berengaria |
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| Beatrice | |
| Fernando de la Cerda |
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| Eleanor | |
| Sancho IV the Bold |
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| Constanta | |
| Pedro |
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| Juan | |
| Isabel |
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| Children | Violanta |
| Jaime |
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| Illegitimate children | |
| From communication with Maria Alfonso de Leon | Berenguela Alfonso |
| From communication with Elvira Rodriguez de Villada | Alfonso Fernandez |
| From communication with Maria Guillen de Guzman | Beatrice Alfonso |
| From unknown lovers: | Urraca Alfonso |
| Martin Alfonso |
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While still an infant, Alfonso showed political and military talents, participating in government and numerous wars of his father. But having become king himself, he largely departed from a clear national policy Fernando III . True, the wars with the Moors continued, but they were fought without the proper energy, sporadically and often ended in defeat.
His first military campaign was undertaken in accordance with projects developed Fernando III . The trip to Africa in 1254 - 1255 received the approval of the popes Innocent IV And Alexandra IV and ended in defeat Alfonso X due to disagreements with the kings of Portugal and Navarre.
Instead of focusing on the war. Alfonso went to great expense to be elected Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in 1257. This empty title brought him nothing but a quarrel with the Roman Curia. Internal affairs ( Alfonso X persistently sought to annex Navarre and Gascony to his possessions) also did not give the king the opportunity to completely devote himself to the reconquista.
The intentions of the Castilian kings to take possession of Navarre were manifested more than once in the past, and a lot of blood was shed in the struggle to take possession of the territory of La Rioja. The King of Navarre died in 1253 Teobaldo I Great and the throne passed to his fifteen-year-old son Teobaldo II . Alphonse X took advantage of this circumstance to attack Navarre, whose regent (the dowager queen Margarita ) in anticipation of such complications, enlisted the support of Jaime I . However, the war did not arise thanks to the mediation of the prelates and nobles, who managed to achieve peace.
In September 1262 Alfonso X with the support of the Emir of Granada and the naval forces of the Cantabrian cities, he suddenly attacked Cadiz and took the city with great booty. With the conquest of Cadiz, one of the centers of the Moorish pirates was destroyed, from where they raided Seville and other Castilian cities.
In 1263 Alfonso X captured Cartagena, where the Moorish uprising was suppressed. To defend the newly acquired possessions, fortresses were built in Cadiz, Rota, San Lucar and Puerto de Santa Maria (the city was founded AlfonsoX). Some time later Alfonso X took possession of Niebla. In the battle for this city, the Moors used gunpowder and cannons for the first time.
A new war was caused by the Moors and especially the Emir of Granada, who opposed the Castilians; relying on the rebel cities of Jerez and Murcia and receiving support from the Moroccans. Alfonso X in alliance with Jaime I captured Jerez, took a number of fortified points and castles and defeated the Emir of Granada and his allies. Alfonso X skillfully used the feuds and disagreements between the emir of Granada and his governors (wali) in Malaga, Guadiz and Comares. Some Castilian magnates, dissatisfied with the king, fought on the side of the Emir of Granada. In 1273 after the death of the emir Muhammad I ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr (al-Ghalib bi-llah, al-Ahmar) Peace was concluded between Castile and Granada.
The Duchy of Gascony, which became part of the Castilian state as a wife's dowry Alphonse VIII (November 11, 1155 – October 6, 1214) Eleanor of England (October 13, 1162 - October 31, 1214), just at this time she began a war with England and turned to AlfonsoX. He provided this help, intending to consolidate his power over this territory. However, in 1254 AlfonsoX signed an alliance agreement with Henry III (1 October 1207 – 16 November 1272), King of England (19 October 1216 – 16 November 1272) and Duke of Aquitaine (19 October 1216 – 16 November 1272), supporting him in the war against Louis IX Saint (April 25, 1214 - August 25, 1270), King of France (November 8, 1226 - August 25, 1270). That same year, half-sister Alfonso, Eleanor of Castile (1241 – November 28, 1290), married Edward (17 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), heir to the English throne. After this event Alfonso forever renounced all claims to Gascony.
These setbacks were minor compared to the defeat suffered Alfonso X while trying to seize the crown of the German Empire. AlfonsoX, relying on family ties with the Swabian ducal house, to which his mother belonged, declared a claim to the vacant imperial throne. Some voters proclaimed in 1257 Alfonso emperor.
Alfonso X entered into a fight with those who supported the candidacy Heinrich III English , and spared no expense to achieve this goal. He sent a squadron with landing units to Genoa and stubbornly defended his rights. However, after death Heinrich III in 1272 the college of voters decided on the candidacy of the count Rudolf Habsburg , who took the imperial throne in 1273. At the same time, the failure that befell AlfonsoX, was largely due to resistance on the part of the popes, and especially the pope Gregory X , who supported Rudolf Habsburg . Alfonso, taking advantage of a period of known calm in Castile, decided to achieve success by force of arms, but this attempt was unsuccessful. Negotiations with Gregory X were unsuccessful, and when Alfonso began to insist on his claims and caused a war in Italy, having appropriated the signs and title of emperor to himself, the pope threatened him with excommunication. As a result Alfonso X failed to take the imperial throne.
Failures accompanied Alfonso X and in the field of domestic policy. He was an adherent of the principle of royal autocracy and an enemy of feudal anarchy. His worldview was imbued with the ideas of Roman law; love of culture and the desire to master all its riches were his characteristic features. Meanwhile, in his practical activities, he encountered hostile forces, whose aspirations and tendencies were incompatible with his beliefs and were caused by selfish, egoistic interests. He fought with the nobility, arrogant, proud, unprincipled, always ready to oppose the royal power with weapons in their hands.
Coffers Alfonso X was exhausted by external wars and the extravagance of the king himself, a generous and vain man. The extravagance caused widespread discontent that political opponents Alfonso X They knew how to use it for their own purposes. The amount of tribute paid by the Emir of Granada was reduced, and at the same time Alfonso began to resort to damaging coins, which did not facilitate trade.
Despite numerous protests from the Castilians, Alfonso imposed duties on trade transactions. However, this event did not lead to the intended goal. Failures that have befallen Alfonso in the economic field, were accompanied by a number of actions of the king that were harmful to the state.
Alfonso X ceded the territory of the Algarve to the king of Portugal, freed him from fiefdom and renounced his rights to the Gascon duchy. The Castilian nobility regarded these actions as an abuse of power and as a manifestation of absolutism. This led to numerous revolts against the king.
Castilian nobles served both the kings of Aragon and Navarre, and the emir of Granada, and sometimes entered into alliances with both and even with the Muslims of Morocco, despite the privileges that the king gave them at the Cortes in Burgos in 1271.
The nobility were not afraid of the cruel punishments to which the king sometimes subjected the disobedient. During his reign Alfonso fought with the Castilian nobles, especially with Nuno Gonzalez de Lara , Diego Lopez de Haro And Esteban Fernandez de Castro , all of whom were good warriors and played an important role in maintaining Castile's military strength in the border areas.
Alfonso was absent from the country when very serious events occurred that complicated the internal situation of the Castilian state. The Granadian Moors enlisted the help of the Marinids, who established their dominance in North Africa after the collapse of the Almohad power. A strong Marinid army landed at Tarifa. They were resisted, but luck in the battles did not favor the Castilians. The commander of the border strip troops died in the first battle Nuno Gonzalez de Lara and a number of other representatives of the nobility. In the second battle the Infants laid down their heads Sancho , son Jaime I , and the Archbishop of Toledo. It was only thanks to the courage of Lord Vizcaya that the troops of the Archbishop of Toledo were not completely destroyed and were able to retreat while maintaining order.
The king's firstborn and heir, Fernando , who was supposed to arrive with new reinforcements, became seriously ill and died in Ciudad Real in 1275, leaving behind two sons; the eldest of them according to the law established by himself AlfonsoX, was supposed to inherit the throne. But at the same time the second son of the king made a claim to the crown Sancho , and thus a new conflict arose. As soon as Sancho learned about the death of his brother, he conspired with representatives of the nobility who were dissatisfied with the king Alfonso, so that they would support his claim to the throne. Wherein Sancho was based on an ancient custom according to which the throne was supposed to pass to the closest relative in the king's family. Also Sancho was against transferring the crown to a minor.
Wanting to get support, Sancho promised to grant significant privileges and favors to the nobility; as a result, he brought her to his side. Alfonso conceded and announced Sancho his successor. King's daughter-in-law Blanca French (widow Fernando ) refused to accept this decision, fled with her children to Aragon, but they were unable to gain support to restore their rights. Meanwhile Sancho signed an agreement with the Aragonese king, who imprisoned both infantes in the fortress of Xativa. Blanka turned to her brother, the French king Philip III , and persuaded him to take his nephews under his protection. Philip sent an army to Spain, which for several years devastated the areas of the Castilian state bordering Navarre.
AlfonsoX, who was under pressure from the French king Philip III , uncle of the infantes Cerda , formed a new kingdom for the senior infanta on the territory of Jaen, separating it from Castile, as a vassal territory. He left all his other possessions Sancho .
I didn't like this section Sancho , and, since Alfonso defended his decision, an armed conflict arose between father and son in 1281. The fight went on with varying degrees of success. On the side Sancho was almost the entire Castilian nobility, who took advantage of the dynastic strife in order to secure their privileges and achieve even greater independence.
Representatives of the nobility convened the Cortes in Valladolid in 1282. It was announced that the powers Alfonso passed on to his son Sancho , but not the title of king. They also decided to call for help from the ruler of Morocco and pledge the royal crown to him as collateral for a loan of 60 thousand gold ducats. Thus, the Muslims intervened in the feuds of the Christians and began to devastate Castile along with the French and Aragonese.
First on the side Sancho There was not only the nobility, but also the clergy and most cities. However, soon the rush to the camp began AlfonsoX, which was joined by many representatives of the nobility and cities. In the midst of this war Alfonso fell ill and died in 1284 in Seville. With his posthumous will, he further confused the matter: he deprived Sancho throne, appointed heir to the eldest son of the deceased Fernando de la Cerda , and for younger sons Juana And Jaime allocated special kingdoms - Seville, Badajoz and Murcia.
Sancho did not recognize his father's will and declared himself king. He was crowned at Toledo on April 30, 1284 as Sancho IV of Castile .
Most of the nobility and many cities went over to his side, although the first son Fernando de la Cerda managed to enlist the support of well-known circles of the nobility. Simultaneously Juan , whose kingdom included Seville and Badajoz, was not recognized as king Sancho and rebelled with his numerous vassals, among whom was Lope de Haro , friend and colleague AlfonsoX.
Sancho took vigorous measures and resorted to bloody reprisals. He ordered to kill de Haro and arrest Juana . He also ordered the killing of 4 thousand supporters of the clan Cerda in Badajoz and 400 in Talavera. Similar acts of “justice” were committed in Avila and Toledo. However, even with such measures Sancho failed to extinguish the turmoil.
Infant Juan , forgiven Sancho , again became indignant and began military action against him, turning to the Marinids for help. The well-known incident with Guzman the Good , ruler of Tarifa, a city which the infante was besieging with the help of the Moors. Juan threatened Guzman to kill his young son, who was in the camp of the besiegers, if the fortress was not surrendered to him. Guzman the threats were not deterred, and he, remaining faithful to the king, sent the infanta his own knife so that he would stab the child with it. Juan ordered his son to be stabbed Guzman near the wall of a besieged fortress. But Tarifa did not give up, and this upset the plans of the Infant, whose position worsened also because Sancho defeated the ruler of Morocco on land and sea and scattered his squadron, prepared in Tangier for a landing in Spain.
Alfonso pursued a policy of strengthening royal power, which caused discontent among the secular nobility. During his reign, the structure of bishoprics was finally formed in the territory of southern Spain conquered from the Moors (the bishoprics of Badajoz, Cadiz and Cartagena were created).
Deeply interested in astronomy, Alfonso ordered the construction of an observatory and instructed 50 astronomers to compile new astronomical tables, named after him Alfonsov. The Castilian language acquired Alfonso important in all areas of life: he encouraged literature, ordered state acts and laws to be written in the Castilian dialect, instead of the previous custom of using barbaric Latin, even the Bible was, at his direction, translated into Castilian. Much work has been done in Alfonso on streamlining and unification of law. Instead of many local laws, the king tried to give the country a general code based on the traditions of Roman law (it was called the “Laws of the Seven Parts”). The New Code consistently promoted the idea of the omnipotence of royal power; the rights of the nobility and cities were significantly curtailed in it. But this trend reflected the wishes of the central government rather than its real capabilities. Subsequent events showed how far the concepts of the “Laws of the Seven Parts” were from reality.
Alfonso patronized the Church and spiritual knightly orders. At the same time, he often interfered in the appointment of bishops and more than once appropriated church rents. Unlucky politician Alfonso owes his fame to philanthropy, scientific and literary pursuits. He gathered at his court many scientists - both Christians and Muslims and Jews. He revived the traditions of the Toledo school of translators, and similar communities operated in Murcia and Seville.
Through the efforts of these schools, the Koran, Talmud, Kabbalah, works were translated into Castilian or Latin Aristotle , works of fiction from Eastern countries.
By order and with direct participation Alfonso a comprehensive set of laws was compiled in Castilian - the Seven Partidas, the first of which is devoted to the position of the Church and the role of the clergy in society. Of no less interest are the historical works created on the initiative of Alfonso or by himself, - Cronica general (General Chronicle) and Gran y general estoria (General History). The king's pen also includes: Los libros del saber de astronomia (Books on Astronomical Knowledge), which included the famous Tablas alfonsinas (Alphonse Tables), used by sailors for centuries, and Lapidario (Lapidary) - a treatise on precious stones and the magical properties attributed to them.
Family of Alfonso X the Wise
Father: Fernando III Castilian (5 August 1199 - 30 May 1252), king of Castile, Toledo and Extremadura (1217 - 1252), king of Leon and Galicia (1230 - 1252).
Mother: Elisabeth von Hohenstaufen (Beatrice of Swabia) (March/May 1203 - 5 November 1235), daughter Philip of Swabia (August 1177 - June 21, 1208), Bishop of Würzburg (1190 - 1191), Margrave of Tuscany (1195 - 1197), Duke of Swabia (August 15, 1196 - June 21, 1208 .), Roman king (March 6, 1198 - June 21, 1208).
Wife: from January 19, 1249 Violante of Aragon (8 June 1236 - 1301), daughter Jaime I the Conqueror (2 February 1208 - 27 July 1276), King of Aragon (12 September 1213 - 27 July 1276), Count of Barcelona (1213 - 27 July 1276), Lord of Montpellier (1213 - July 27, 1276), King of Majorca (1231 - July 27, 1276), 1st King of Valencia (1238 - July 27, 1276), Count of Urgel (1231 - 1236) , Count of Roussillon and Cerdany (1244 - July 27, 1276) and Yolanda of Hungary (Hungarian: Árpád-házi Jolánta, Magyarországi Jolánta), (c. 1215 - October 1251), Hungarian princess of the dynasty Arpadov . Due to young age Violanta I couldn't get pregnant for several years. Alfonso came to the conclusion that his wife was infertile, and even thought about the possibility of asking the pope to annul the marriage.
Fernando , died in infancy
Berengaria (10 October/25 November 1253 - 1300), was betrothed to Louis , son and heir of the French king Louis IX , but her fiancé died prematurely in 1260. She went to a monastery in Las Huelgas, where she lived in 1284.
Beatrice (November 5/December 6, 1254 - c. 1286); husband: from August 1271 Guglielmo VII (d. 8 February 1292), Marquis of Monferrato
Fernando de la Cerda (23 October 1255 – 25 July 1275), ancestor of the house de la Cerda . Married Blanche , daughter of the French king Louis IX , with whom he had two children. Since he predeceased his father, his younger brother Sancho inherited the throne.
Eleanor (1257 - after 1274/1275)
Sancho IV the Bold (12 May 1258 - 25 April 1295), King of Castile and Leon (1284 - 25 April 1295)
Constanta (February/October 1259 - July 23, 1280), nun in Las Huelgas;
Pedro (15 May/25 July 1260 - 20 October 1283), Señor de Ledesma, Alba de Tormes, Salvatiera, Galisto and Miranda
Juan (15 May/25 July 1260 – 25 June 1319), Seigneur de Valencia de Campos
Violanta (1265 - March 12, 1287/January 30, 1308); husband: from 1282 Diego Lopez de Haro (c. 1250 - 1310), Lord of Vizcaya
Besides Alphonse X had several illegitimate children.
From communication with Maria Alfonso de Leon , his aunt, the king's illegitimate daughterLeona Alfonso IX And Teresa Gil de Soverosa :
Berenguela Alfonso (? - after 1264), husband: Pedro Nunez de Guzman , but died young, leaving no descendants.
From communication with Elvira Rodriguez de Villada (daughter Rodrigo Fernandez de Villada ) :
Alfonso Fernandez (c. 1243 - 1281).
From communication with Maria Guillen de Guzman (daughter Guillén Perez de Guzman And Maria Gonzalez Giron ) :
Beatrice Alfonso (1242 - October 27, 1303); husband: from 1253 Afonso III of Boulogne (5 May 1210 - 16 February 1279), King of Portugal (4 January 1248 - 16 February 1279)
From unknown lovers:
Urraca Alfonso , husband: Alvaro Perez de Guzman (? - after 1280)
Martin Alfonso , abbot in Valladolid.
Alfonso XIII of Spain. Overthrow of the monarchy and exile
The results of the city council elections held on April 12, 1931 demonstrated the impressive success of republican candidates in most provincial cities, although the total number of monarchists in city councils was significantly higher. Undoubtedly, these elections were the decisive factor in the overthrow of the monarchy. But not because the overall result was in favor of the Republicans, but because the king ceased to be a support for the monarchist candidates, and there was no longer a single party behind them that could be relied upon. By collaborating with the dictatorship, the monarch lost prestige, which the Republicans took advantage of to turn the publication of the voting results into a convincing plebiscite in favor of the republic.
The day after the elections, the "revolutionary committee" circulated a manifesto calling for the proclamation of a republic. Numerous demonstrations throughout the country demanded the formation of a provisional government and the resignation of Alfonso XIII from power. The government, chaired by Admiral Juan Batista Azcar, immediately submitted a resignation to the king, and the latter found it impossible to appoint another cabinet, since neither the so-called constitutionalists (José Sánchez Guerra, Melquíades Álvarez and Miguel de Villanova) nor the most devoted monarchists were ready for this. Almost all monarchist leaders - with the exception of Gabino Buhallal and Juan de La Cierva - strongly recommended that the monarch leave the country; they considered the fall of the monarchy and the proclamation of a republic inevitable. Even the head of the gendarmerie (civil guard), General José Sanjurjo, could no longer provide protection for the monarchy.
Abandoned by everyone, Alfonso XIII was forced to accept the advice of Romanones and submit to the ultimatum of the chairman of the Republican Committee, Niceto Alcala Zamore, who, on behalf of the Republican Committee, threateningly demanded that the king immediately leave the country with his entire family. On the night of April 14, Alfonso XIII left Madrid in his own carriage, saying goodbye to the queen and children, who a few days later also had to go into exile. The king was followed by his cousin Alfonso of Orleans, the chief chamberlain of the court, the Duke of Miranda, and Admiral Ribeira. The fugitives headed to Cartagena, where they arrived on the morning of April 15. On the same day, Alphonse sailed to Marseille aboard the cruiser Prince of Asturias, from where he hurriedly went to Paris to meet his wife and children there.
Before leaving, Alfonso XIII, in order to avoid civil war, signed a manifesto in which he admitted his mistakes and refused to assert his authority through violence, without declaring his renunciation of the throne and without expressing his readiness to abdicate the throne (the manifesto was published on April 17, 1931 in the ABC newspaper ").
During the first years of exile, Alfonso XIII tried to peacefully restore the monarchy without resorting to a military uprising. But his ideas were not understood by the majority of his varied supporters, who urgently demanded an abdication that would make possible unification with the Carlists (adherents of another dynastic branch) and the introduction of a traditional and authoritarian monarchy, very distant from the liberal one in which Alfonso XIII continued to believe. However, after one of the meetings with the monarchists (among whom were Antonio Goicoetche, José Calvo Sotelo and Pedro Sane Rodríguez) in Paris after the unsuccessful uprising in August 1932, the king finally accepted the point of view of the putschists. They suggested that he create a single monarchist party, the “Spanish Renewal,” designed to ensure the organization of the uprising. In this case, a secret agreement between conservative military officers from the Spanish Military Union and Carlist groups was assumed. They counted on the support of the Italian government, which was supposed to provide money and weapons.
But Alfonso XIII did not want to abdicate in favor of his son Juan, as urgently demanded by the groups united around the “Spanish Action”, and above all Calvo Sotelo. The delicate situation that arose caused a double crisis: between the monarchist leaders themselves, since while Calvo Sotelo demanded unconditional abdication, Goicoeche did not object to Alfonso XIII remaining on the throne, and between the king and Calvo Sotelo. During the meeting of both after the wedding of Infante Don Juan in Rome in 1935, an unpleasant incident even occurred.
These squabbles led to the fact that the king increasingly moved away from the small groups of his supporters, who were aligned with right-wing extremists and had only meager electoral potential. They (the squabbles) were the reason for his rapprochement with the Spanish Confederation of Right Autonomists, a truly mass party led by José Maria Gil Robles, which since the elections of 1933 has become the most significant parliamentary faction of the Spanish right. At the end of 1935, Alfonso XIII finally decided to abandon his orientation towards any one party. Instead, he tried to force the unification of right-wing groups bound by the common goal of revising the Constitution. It was supposed to make possible the future monarchical restoration.
Although Alfonso XIII maintained constant contact with monarchist groups, his role was rather limited to supporting the idea of a monarchical restoration and acting as a mediator between the various groups. The latter were more interested in obtaining royal approval for their projects and intrigues than in the unity of the monarchist movement.
In truth, the deposed monarch also did not show too much interest in political activities. Alphonse wanted to get as much out of life as possible and did everything that he could not afford during his reign. So in the first years of exile, the deposed king caroused in expensive restaurants, took part in hunts to which he was invited by the royal houses of Europe, and constantly traveled, having visited during this time not only a thousand different places in Europe, but even in distant India, where he met with by his son Juan, who served there in the British Naval Guards.
However, his life consisted of far more than just fun and entertainment; very soon a tragic turn took place in her. After he was abandoned by his wife, who did not even come to the weddings of their children, Infanta Beatriz and Infanta Juan, in order to avoid meeting her husband, Alfonso XIII suffered a whole string of misfortunes. First, his son Gonzalo's life was cut short in a road accident in Austria, and four years later, his first-born Alfonso also died in a car accident in North America. In 1933, Gonzalo renounced his rights to the throne because he entered into a morganatic marriage with the young Cuban Edelmira Sampedro.
In exile, Alfonso XIII could not even take advantage of his fortune, which he acquired during his reign, since most of the money was invested in Spain. His overseas assets were barely enough to feed the royal family. Even the most vehement slanderers of the monarchy are unable to prove that the king's personal wealth was excessive, or to find even a single proof that the monarch had illegally enriched himself, despite the meticulous investigations undertaken by the republicans and a commission of experts into the personal fortune of Alfonso XIII.
On the morning of February 28, 1941, the former king of Spain died in Rome, where he was staying with his wife, whom he had not seen for many years. The Infante, Prince of Asturias, had shortly before been proclaimed heir to the throne.
King of Spain from the Bourbon family, who reigned from 1886 to 1931. Son
Alfonso XII and Mary of Austria. Zh.: since 1906 Victoria Evgenia, daughter
Alphonse was born six months after his father's death.
For 16 years, his mother Maria Christina served as regent of the kingdom.
She did not oppose raising her son as a “soldier king.” From a young age life
Alfonsa was connected with the army. He was 12 years old when Spain, having suffered
defeat in the war with the USA, lost its overseas territories: Cuba,
Puerto Rico and the Philippines. He belonged to the so-called "98 generation"
year", who experienced the loss of the empire as a national catastrophe and personal
humiliation. Having sworn in before the Cortes in May 1902, the king wrote in his
diary: “It depends on me whether Spain remains a Bourbon monarchy or
will become a republic: I inherited a country devastated by past wars,
an army with a backward organization, a fleet without ships, desecrated banners,
governors and alcaldes who do not fulfill the law." He really
It was not an easy reign. In May 1906, during his marriage to
Enoi Battenberg, anarchists threw a bomb at the newlyweds. Fortunately,
The royal couple were not injured, but many were killed. Then followed
other assassination attempts. Three of Alphonse's prime ministers died at his hands
terrorists. Spain was constantly shaken by political and economic
crises. During the First World War, Alphonse remained neutral. Although
this did not save him from the revolution, but it helped him stay on the throne longer
their contemporaries kings. But all attempts to achieve stability in the country have failed
were crowned with success. The efforts of the reformers failed. In 1930 it fell and
the dictatorship of General Miguel Primo de Rivera established in 1923 and
abolishing the constitutional order despite the king's protests. It sped up
played the role of a plebiscite: on that day, about 70% of voters gave their votes
support for the bloc of Republicans and Socialists. The military advised the king to introduce
troops took to the streets, but Alphonse refused. "I can be king if I
count on the love of your people,” he answered, “but not when
Cartagena he went to France and never returned to Spain.
However, Alphonse did not abdicate the throne and almost until his death he called
himself as a Spanish king. Moving from one country to another, he ends up
finally settled in Rome. He was already seriously ill when in Europe
the second world war broke out. In recent years, he was haunted by personal
tragedy: in 1934 his youngest son Gon-Salo died, in 1938 his eldest son died
Alfonso. In January 1941, the king abdicated the throne in favor of his
third son of Don Juan, Count of Barcelona.