Exquisite aroma, amazing taste of freshly brewed coffee - what could be better in the morning? Not only does it serve to awaken, but it is also good for accompanying conversations, disputes and resolving conflicts. And deliciously brewed coffee is a sign of high skill. Which coffee tastes better? How to brew it in a Turk so that it tastes good? This will be discussed in the article.
Turk
Turka is an integral part of the coffee brewing tradition. Many people ask how to make Turkish coffee. This vessel helps to reveal all the sophistication of this enchanting drink. The vessel should have a conical shape. Turks of good quality have thick walls, and the bottom is two to three times wider than the throat. The narrowed and high neck of the Turka allows the rising foam to clog the aroma and taste in this particular vessel and prevent it from evaporating. We brew coffee in a Turkish coffee pot correctly, calculating the required volume based on the number of people. For proper cooking, it is better to have several Turks of different sizes. The handle in the vessel must be long with a certain angle, which does not allow it to be scorched in the fire. Many people prefer wood, since when used correctly it is considered the best material for this purpose. When purchasing, be sure to pay attention to the mounting location. It is very convenient when the handle is removed, this allows you to preserve the wooden handle longer from changes in humidity.
Types of Turks
There are three types of Turks that can be used when making coffee: metal (made from copper, stainless steel and bronze), clay and ceramic. One thing can be said right away: a stainless steel pot can be recommended to you by people who have absolutely no knowledge of brewing coffee. Metal greatly distorts the taste when brewing, so put it off until bad times. Bronze and copper vessels must be coated inside with food grade tin to prevent poisoning of the body with these metals. Clay Turk is one of the cheapest options. Clay has the ability to absorb the aroma of prepared drinks. How to brew coffee in a Turkish pot made of clay? If you have a clay Turk, then it should only be used for one type of drink. You must be careful when handling. When cooking in a clay vessel, sudden changes in temperature must be avoided, as the vessel may burst. Ceramic Turk is recognized as the most expensive and durable. When preparing it, you need a certain skill. Ceramic holds the temperature well, so when removed from the heat, the drink continues to bubble and rise for some time.
Coffee varieties
There are main types of coffee: Liberica, Arabica, Robusto. Liberica is known for its strong bitter taste. It is used only in a mixture to obtain a rich, strong, slightly bitter taste. Arabica has a soft, refined, pleasant aroma. This type contains minimal caffeine. Robusto is stronger than Arabica and has a more pronounced aroma. But it is not used in its pure form. But these two varieties are known to many lovers of this wonderful drink, who know for sure how to brew ground coffee.
Roasting beans
Roasting plays a very important role. It can be medium, weak and maximum. When heavily roasted, the product develops a pronounced and bitter taste. Determine for yourself which coffee tastes better by trying each roast.
Grinding grains
According to all rules, the grinding for brewing in a Turk should be like dust. If the grind is coarser, then an unpleasant aftertaste will remain and, perhaps, large particles will not all settle to the bottom, so they will end up in your mouth. How to brew ground coffee sold in stores? The problem with the ground drink sold is that when you open the package, the aroma quickly evaporates. But if you grind the beans at home, the coffee comes out with a much richer aroma and brighter taste. If you don’t want to spend money on a coffee grinder, then you can buy coffee in a vacuum or in a can, but it must be factory-packed. The label usually indicates the percentage composition of the mixture, and if the coffee comes with a filler, its name will be indicated.
How to brew coffee
Having decided on the grind and type of drink, you need to find out how to brew coffee in a Turkish coffee pot. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the ratio of water and powder. So, let’s warm up the bottom of the Turk a little, to do this we put it on low heat for a few seconds. Warm up the Turk and add the ground drink at the rate of 150 grams of water per 2 teaspoons. Sugar should be added immediately for those who need it. You need to pour water into the vessel so that the liquid is at the level of the narrow part of the neck. This is done so that when boiling the foam clogs the entire aroma in the vessel. Having placed the Turk on the fire, we brew coffee in the Turk correctly, the fire should be low. As soon as a small, peculiar crust begins to appear on the water, and foams and rises along the edges, we can talk about boiling. This moment cannot be missed. It is necessary to remove the Turk from the heat in time so that the resulting cap is not broken and does not “escap.” A foam cap or stopper is a kind of blockage of aroma and taste in the Turk; if it is disturbed, the delicacy of the drink will disappear. Wait until the plug settles. Do not touch it under any circumstances and repeat this manipulation several more times. If you stir the coffee after the third boil, the grounds along with the debris will settle to the bottom and the cup will be cleaner. But gourmets of the drink argue that the foam stopper should get into all cups equally, since this is what gives the piquant taste of coffee. But whether to interfere or not is entirely up to everyone. For a tasty drink you will need clean, soft drinking water, well-ground roasted coffee, a good Turk and a warm cup (the cup is heated by first pouring hot water into it for a couple of minutes).
Turkish coffee recipe
How to brew Turkish coffee in a Turkish coffee pot? For one serving you will need: a teaspoon of ground grains and water. Fine grinding is placed in a Turk and filled with water equal to one cup. Cook until the cap begins to rise up. At this time, remove the Turk from the heat and carefully remove the foam into the bowl. The vessel is put back on the fire, and heating begins again. The Turk must be removed at the moment when the liquid begins to boil - this is very important. If you remove the Turk incorrectly at a certain moment, the coffee may be weak or overheated.
Arabic coffee recipe
How to brew Arabic coffee in a Turk? We put the Turk on the fire to warm it up. Remove and pour a little sugar into it, one teaspoon is enough. Return it to low heat. As soon as the sugar begins to change its white color to a light brown tone, pour in a little water and stir, bring to a boil. As soon as the water and sugar have boiled, remove the vessel from the heat and add coffee to your taste, but no more than 2 teaspoons. Then add a spoonful of cold water. Place the Turk on low heat, under no circumstances stir it further. As soon as foam appears, skim it into a preheated cup. The highlight of Arabic coffee is to keep it on the fire for as long as possible and not let it boil. But as soon as the head of coffee rises, the Turk must be quickly removed from the heat. If you like very strong coffee, then add another spoonful of cold water and return to the heat. This procedure can be repeated several more times, each time the coffee will be stronger.
We told you how to brew Turkish coffee according to all traditions; try this enchanting drink, experiment with spices, and you may discover a new taste for yourself.
Artyom Temirov, one of the co-founders of the Cherny cooperative (the organization deals with coffee) reports:
We are interested in statistics, and in Russia it is terrifying: out of 100% of the coffee market, 85% is instant coffee. Another 5% are coffee drinks, that is, not coffee at all, and only 10% are natural ground coffee
For true coffee connoisseurs, the statistics are sad. Still, there is a certain percentage of people who love natural ground (brewed) coffee.
So, here are step-by-step instructions for brewing coffee in a Turk:
- Select your favorite roast (green, toasted, deep roast, etc.)
- Grind the beans. It is believed that the finer the coffee is ground, the faster and more actively it releases its taste and beneficial properties to the water in which it is brewed..
- Heat the empty Turk over the fire.
- If desired, you can put a piece of refined sugar or salt on the bottom of the turk (cezve). This little trick will help enhance and highlight the taste of your wonderful coffee. If you don't allow sugar in your coffee, you shouldn't add anything at the beginning.
- Take the required amount of clean, filtered water.
- Pour the ground coffee beans into the Turk. The amount of coffee is taken to taste. Usually this is one and a half to two heaped teaspoons for one small cup of coffee.. An alternative to brewing coffee is to first heat the slightly dry material in a pot without adding water to intensify the flavor.
- Fill with cold, unboiled, purified water. Turks usually have a bottleneck at the top. It is along this peculiar mark that you need to pour water according to the rules.. In addition, the narrow space allows the drink to create a plug of grounds at the top of the vessel during preparation to preserve coffee oils and other beneficial substances.
- You need to put the cezve (Turkish name in Eastern) on low heat so that the liquid does not escape, as often happens when preparing coffee in this way.
- Wait until the water comes to a boil, but do not allow the process of turning water into steam to begin properly, that is, wait until a foam cap forms. At first, such foam is called young, that is, it is the first foam of the future drink, its color is white. Later it becomes dark, that is, “old”. This is evidenced by the bubbles that form on top at this stage of coffee preparation.
- Now you should remove the vessel from the heat and wait a little until the foam subsides.
- When one complete cycle is completed, you can begin another one of the same. Moreover, it is allowed to repeat it several times. This amount will depend on the quality and size of the grain grind.
Next, it is recommended to leave the coffee for a few minutes “to rest.” Then take cups and pour warm water. Wait until they warm up. Drain the water as soon as it has transferred most of the heat to the cups. They are now ready to be filled with coffee.
According to the women's magazine “Woman style”,
...According to the French, you cannot boil coffee. And it is true. A drink brought to a boil loses its value because it has a different taste and aroma. That is why when preparing it you need to say “brew.”
A few more ways to brew coffee in a Turk
Method one:
- Boil a small amount of water.
- Pour some boiled warm water into the grater.
- Pour crushed coffee into the pot. A standard cup usually takes up to 2 tsp. coffee. However, the amount depends on your individual taste preferences.
- Then pour water from the kettle into the Turk. It should be noted here that the water should not be boiling. The total amount of water in the Turk should correspond to the volume of your cup.
- Place the Turk on the stove and wait for the coffee to start boiling. It is at this moment that it is necessary to remove the drink from the heat.
- Let the drink sit for a few minutes, pour into a cup and enjoy the unique taste and aroma. All additional ingredients must be added directly to the cup.
Method two:
- Warm the Turk over the fire for 30 seconds.
- Add 2 tablespoons of coffee and sugar to taste.
- Fry a little mixture of coffee and sugar in a Turk.
- When the sugar begins to melt and the coffee begins to clump, stop roasting.
- Fill with water to the level of the bottleneck. This recipe requires the use of cold, unboiled water.
Wait for the foam to rise and the coffee to boil. Remove the Turk from the stove. Let it brew for a couple of minutes and pour the finished drink into a cup.
During the cooking process, you may have various questions. For example, what to do with the foam that always forms when brewing coffee. If you are not a fan of foam, then try to pour the coffee from the Turk into a cup, leaving the foam on the walls of the Turk, or just carefully collect it beforehand and rinse it in the sink. If you still decide to fully experience the whole aroma of coffee, then transfer the foam with a spoon to your cup. You can also add milk, cream or various spices to already prepared coffee. The dose of ground coffee powder can be adjusted according to your preference, but the amount of water should always be the standard amount.
What to do if you like coffee, but the Turks don’t?
A small saucepan (enamel) or ladle will save you. Place freshly ground coffee beans in a clean, pre-heated container that you have chosen for making coffee at home.. They must be roasted and ground immediately before starting the process. Proportions: pour 3 tablespoons of the product into a regular glass of water. There is no need to stir the drink when heating the vessel on the fire..
For brewing in the microwave, the Kofella coffee territory advises:
Before putting on coffee, measure how long it takes for a glass of water to boil in your microwave. The fact is that all devices are of different power, and we will not be able to say exactly how long you need to keep the coffee so that it just reaches the desired temperature
You can make coffee in the microwave in a slightly different way. Just watch carefully when the foam starts to rise. It is at this moment that you need to quickly turn off the device, otherwise the coffee will “run away”. After turning off, wait half a minute and the drink is ready!
Video
A cup of invigorating coffee, brewed in a Turk according to all the rules, is what you need to start a fruitful day. And year after year, this aromatic drink is becoming increasingly popular among people of all ages. The elderly appreciate its laxative effect and antioxidant protection, which helps delay the aging process, and for middle-aged people it is a way to increase brain productivity during a busy day and relieve nervous tension. You can only count on the expected effect if you know the recipes for making Turkish coffee using natural beans.
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How to choose the right Turk
Household appliances for making coffee began their journey back in the 19th century. The filter drip coffee maker belongs to American inventors; Neapolitan coffee can be prepared in a geyser coffee maker. Espresso coffee appeared simultaneously with the espresso machine of the same name. Today, all these methods of brewing coffee are actively used, having been further developed and transformed in the form of modern coffee machines. However, a true coffee lover always has a Turk in his arsenal.
Manufacturers made sure that a Turk was born that runs on electricity, because it is quite difficult to brew coffee in a Turk while on a business trip and without access to a stove in a hotel. Electric coffee turks are suitable for use in the office, due to the lack of a coffee machine. The cooking technology is no different from the usual one, only the container itself is made, as a rule, of stainless steel.
A simple version of Turks can also be made of stainless steel, but copper Turks for coffee are considered the best.
Connoisseurs of the true taste and aroma of the drink claim that the taste largely depends on the material of the container in which the coffee is brewed.
Any metal Turks: made of aluminum, silver, copper and stainless steel are practical in everyday life and have a long service life, but the value of copper is in its thermal conductivity, since the contents of such a Turk are evenly heated.
There is only one drawback - soluble copper compounds pose a danger to humans. But this can be fixed, and when purchasing a copper pot, you need to inquire about its internal coating, which must certainly be made of food-grade tin. During use, you need to monitor its integrity, because damage to the tin layer signals that it is time to change the Turk.
Turks made from Yixing clay are rare because, due to their porosity, they absorb odors. Coffee in such a container turns out excellent, but if you brew only one type of drink. Adding spices to such coffee is fraught with consequences; the aroma will remain, even if you suddenly want to brew the next portion with a different taste.
Ceramic coffee pots are very popular. They are more versatile because they retain heat well, like copper, and surprisingly subtly convey the aroma of the drink, like clay. The thick walls of the ceramic pot allow the coffee to retain the heat acquired from the flame for a long time. Alas, they also have a drawback - fragility and fragility.
You can brew delicious coffee in a Turkish coffee pot with only a conical shape of small volume (100 - 150 ml). The narrower the neck, the less air access, which, in turn, is impeded by the resulting foam.
True, if you still don’t have enough experience, it’s better to buy a larger Turk. It is believed that a high-quality coffee machine is not capable of spoiling coffee, and in any case it will perform all actions with the precision laid down in the program, but brewing coffee in a Turk requires experience and skill. But this is not a reason to abandon the good old way of preparing an oriental drink.
Subtleties of preparing a classic drink
Some coffee lovers are so distrustful of coffee raw materials that they purchase green coffee beans and roast them themselves. However, not everyone can do this skill, so you can limit yourself to buying already roasted beans. Of the many varieties of coffee on Russian shelves, Arabica beans are the most common. This is the best coffee for Turkish coffee - oily, large, regular elongated grains without chips or the smell of mold. But you can also look for robusta for a change. This variety has a significant strength, so you can mix 2 varieties in half.
But it is better to start grinding immediately before brewing, since this is one of the conditions for a quality drink. After just a couple of hours, the divine aroma will disappear.
The grinding should be as fine as possible (to dust), since the size of the grains determines how quickly, in a short cooking time, they will transfer their rich taste to the liquid.
Making coffee in a Turk begins with heating the container itself, at the bottom of which several crystals of salt are placed. There is no need to worry that the coffee will acquire a salty taste, but this will make the aroma more distinct. For a volume of 150 ml you will need 2 heaped teaspoons of ground coffee. Water is poured only after the Turk has warmed up again, along with the coffee.
You need so much water that it reaches the narrowest part of the Turk’s “neck”, and it is better that it is ice-cold. If we take an even more scrupulous approach to how to prepare coffee in a Turk, then it should be said that a spoon for pouring coffee is preferably made of silver, and filtered or well water. Cooled boiling water will only spoil the coffee.
How to properly brew Turkish coffee with or without sugar is a controversial issue. There is an opinion that a small piece of refined sugar has the same ability to saturate the taste as salt. Some believe that sugar is added before cooking so that the sugar syrup slows down the boiling process. It has been noticed that sugar promotes the formation of a denser foam. Definitely, the drink in which sugar is immersed after boiling will have a different taste.
The fire is only very low, but if you need to make coffee quickly, you can first increase the flame, and then, when the foam is about to form, reduce it to a minimum. The intensity of the flame will determine how long to brew coffee in the Turk. Haste can harm the taste of the drink, and grains of coffee beans will float on the surface for a long time without settling if the preparation process was short.
As soon as the foam on the surface of the Turka begins to rise, you need to remove the container from the heat with a deft movement so as not to damage its integrity. Then the Turk is placed again on the stove for some time, until a similar effect appears. As a rule, the action is repeated up to 3 times.
To ensure that delicious coffee in a Turk remains the same in a coffee cup, it is recommended to fill it with hot water and warm it up. This can be done while the coffee is brewing.
In order for fewer grains to get into the coffee cup, the Turk is struck a couple of times on the table, but carefully. For the same purpose, you can add a teaspoon of cold water. You can, of course, not do this. If the cup has been warmed up in advance, the coffee in it will not cool down quickly and you can wait a little until the grounds settle to the bottom of the bowl.
Gourmet coffee recipes
Turkish coffee recipes are not limited to the ingredients: coffee, sugar, salt and water. Anyone who has come to know and love the authentic taste of natural coffee certainly begins to experiment, creating exclusive variations of the drink. Many coffee lovers love Turkish coffee with cinnamon when, along with coffee and sugar, cinnamon is added to a heated container at the tip of a teaspoon. It is not recommended to take more than a quarter of a spoon, although the Mediterranean recipe contains a lot of ingredients: 1 tsp. cinnamon, ½ tsp. grated ginger, the same amount of orange zest and 1 tsp. anise seed. True, this amount is calculated for 400 ml, which includes a tablespoon of coffee and a teaspoon of cocoa powder.
Before conducting experiments, you need to decide on your personal taste preferences and try adding components that differ from the classic version with caution. Experts do not recommend more than 3 spices at once. You can start by adding a pinch of cinnamon, which goes well with a sprinkle of black pepper. There are many recipes where the same cinnamon is used together with vanilla or cognac (10 - 15 ml per cup). In this case, cinnamon is added after the foam appears, and sugar and cognac after it is completely ready.
Latte coffee can be considered a masterpiece of coffee art, which even looks very appetizing from the outside.
Hot milk whipped into foam is poured into the brewed coffee in a thin stream, which settles at the bottom of the transparent glass, concentrating the coffee at the upper level. All this beauty with a snow-white head of foam is sprinkled with grated chocolate.
Even ordinary Turkish coffee with foam is prepared differently depending on the national traditions of a particular people. Thus, one of the Turkish recipes says that before brewing coffee in a Turk, you need to bring water and sugar to a boil, and only then add the required amount of ground coffee. For those who like coffee of varying concentrations, you can give guidance on how to prepare a single, double or triple drink. To do this, you should know that for every 50 ml you need 1 tsp. coffee. Moreover, not the entire volume of coffee is loaded at the same time; each subsequent spoon is again and again brought to the peak of boiling.
Which recipe do you prefer for your everyday morning meal?, can only be solved experimentally. Therefore, go for it, but without fanaticism. And then the aromatic drink will only do you good.
Interesting video about how to brew coffee in a Turk:
Bon appetit!
We are used to calling any coffee brewed in Turk “Turkish coffee,” although this is not entirely true. The fact is that exactly the same cooking method is popular in many countries of the Middle East, North Africa, the Balkans and even the Caucasus.
The vessel for making coffee in the Eastern style has its own name everywhere: for example, in Armenia - srdjep, in Arab countries - dalla, in Greece - briki, in Macedonia, Serbia, Bulgaria and Turkey - cezva. Our language adapted the word “Turk” for this vessel, starting precisely from the Ottoman custom of brewing strong and sweet unfiltered coffee in it directly on the fire, which, subsequently, began to be called “Turkish coffee”, or, more correctly, “po -eastern".
Today we decided to tell you how to properly brew the perfect Turkish coffee, observing all the subtleties of preparing this drink, and what recipes you should definitely pay attention to if this is the kind of coffee you prefer even to a gentle cappuccino or latte.
Choosing coffee
Since oriental coffee is drunk unfiltered, you should choose the finest grind of the beans for its preparation (often called “dust”).
If for some reason you do not trust the manufacturers of ground coffee (here, of course, a lot depends on the quality of the brand), your main assistant will be a coffee grinder, manual or electric, because freshly ground beans are the key to the wonderful taste and special aroma of future coffee.
The second thing you need to pay attention to is the type of coffee. Despite the fact that many argue that the variety does not matter and the drink will turn out delicious regardless of this factor, connoisseurs of Turkish coffee advise preferring aromatic Arabica to strong robusta.
Main secret: The golden mean in choosing the optimal type of coffee, as you probably already guessed, is a mixture of two varieties.
Choosing a Turk
The main requirement for a Turk is small size. In large vessels, coffee invariably turns out tasteless and, as a rule, undercooked. The ideal size is for one serving of coffee, the ideal shape is a wide bottom and tapering edges towards the top.
Initially, Turks were made of copper, but today you can get confused by the huge assortment of different utensils. Aluminum, steel, brass, silver, copper and even clay are used to make Turks.
The best materials are still considered to be copper (durability and affordable price), brass (it makes durable vessels that do not spoil the taste of the drink, as happens, for example, with steel) and silver, from which truly beautiful, elegant dishes are made , which will serve its owner for a long time.
Choose a pot with a long wooden handle: it will be much more convenient to brew coffee and you will definitely not get burned by the steam. The walls of the vessel must be thick.
Main secret: Before preparing the drink, warm the Turk a little and only then pour in the coffee.
Water matters
One of the features of oriental coffee is brewing in cold water. The colder the better - this way the taste and aroma of the coffee will have time to fully develop. Make sure that the water is damp, soft, without any impurities or foreign odors.
Natural, clean water is best suited for brewing oriental coffee. You can also use a home filter to prepare water for your drink. The softer it is, the more delicate the taste will be.
Main secret: If you want to give your coffee a unique soft taste, put a small pinch of salt in the church.
Monitoring the temperature
The basic rule for making Turkish coffee is not to let it boil under any circumstances. That is why you should tune in to the eastern slowness and complete calm.
Under no circumstances leave the stove and do not be distracted by other things: by letting the drink boil, you will only spoil it, destroy the foam and stain everything around. Cook it over low heat or on sand - this can be done even at home: pour a mixture of salt and sand into a deep frying pan, immerse the Turk in it and place on low heat.
Main secret: Do not let the coffee boil, interrupting this process every time the foam starts to rise. Repeat this once or twice - then the coffee will be ready and will not remain undercooked.
Don't forget about the fragrant foam
The real highlight of oriental coffee is the delicate, thick foam. It contains all the taste; under no circumstances does it need to be upset, removed or thrown away. It is the foam that preserves the delicate aroma of coffee in the Turk, clogging it at the very neck.
The foam head should rise to the top several times while you brew the coffee. When it is ready, tap the Turk on the table and wait a bit for the grounds to settle. To make it settle a little faster, you can add a teaspoon of clean water to the drink.
Main secret: After removing the foam from the finished coffee with a spoon, you can put it on the bottom of the cup or on top of an already spilled drink.
Coffee grounds
Ready-made oriental-style coffee is poured into cups directly along with the grounds, in no case using any strainers or straining it. If you choose a fine enough grind, the grounds will not float on the surface and spoil the texture of the drink.
Once you've poured the coffee into your cups (many Turkish coffee connoisseurs recommend warming them up in advance), don't drink it right away. Let it sit for a while so that all the thick stuff settles to the bottom.
Main secret: Don't throw away the coffee grounds! The copious sediment that invariably remains in the cup after oriental coffee is used not only for fortune telling, but also.
Oriental coffee service
In addition to the fact that Turkish coffee cups must be warm, they must also be small, orientally fragile and elegant, usually made of ceramics or porcelain. Choose a coffee set and don’t be lazy to serve coffee this way: it’s not customary to pour the drink into large cups.
Drink and serve coffee slowly, orientally, slowly: this drink is not drunk on the go, it should be savored and drunk in small sips, enjoying the bright taste and rich aroma of freshly brewed coffee.
Be sure to make sure that your guests have a glass of cold water along with coffee - the meal begins and ends with a sip of water. There must also be a sugar bowl on the table. The ideal snack for this drink is oriental sweets or dried fruits. You can put dates, figs, Turkish delight in small beautiful vases - such delicacies will perfectly set off the bitter taste of coffee.
Main secret: add a pinch of ground cardamom to your coffee - it will give the drink an exotic flavor and perfectly smooth out excess bitterness.
Best Recipes
Start with the most classic, simple recipe. Four ingredients (coffee, soda, salt and sugar), a few minutes of patience - and a lot of pleasure from a perfectly brewed drink.
If you are already bored with this kind of coffee, try brewing it with spices. The recipe remains the same, only in the heated Turk, in addition to sugar, you will need to put cloves, vanilla, cardamom and cinnamon.
Another original variation of regular Turkish coffee is coffee with whipped chicken yolk, which is whipped properly (you can add sugar) and then added directly to the coffee.
Having brewed coffee in a Turk, you can use it to prepare a traditional warming drink from strong coffee and milk.
And of course, amazingly tasty, aromatic, according to all the rules, coffee brewed in a Turkish coffee is perfect for preparing: the drink will be strong, rich and warming.