Presentation on the topic "the origin of the Slavs." Who are the Indo-Europeans? Historical roots, settlement The emergence of the Eastern Slavs

CHAPTER 2. ORIGIN OF THE SLAVS. THEIR NEIGHBORS AND ENEMIES

§ 1. The place of the Slavs among the Indo-Europeans

But at the turn of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e. in the territories between the Vistula and the Dnieper, the separation of the tribes of the ancestors of the Eastern European peoples begins to be visible. The Indo-Europeans, continuing to mix and group in the vast expanses of Eurasia, already in the 2nd millennium BC. e. formed a special group of Germans, Balts, and Slavs in Central and Eastern Europe. They all spoke one more language and represented one whole for a number of centuries, and, of course, they were already sharply different from those who settled in India, Central Asia or the Caucasus.

Later, already in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e., the Germanic tribes became isolated, and the Balts (Lithuanians, Latvians) and Slavs formed the common Balto-Slavic group of peoples. It was then that this general group began to occupy large areas of Eastern Europe. Moreover, the Balts settled in the northern regions of Eastern Europe, the Germanic tribes moved to the west, and other branches of Indo-Europeans settled in the south - the Greeks and Italics.

The Vistula River basin became the center of settlement of the Slavic peoples. From here they moved west to the Oder River, but were not allowed further by the German tribes that had already occupied most of Central and Northern Europe.

The ancestors of the Slavs moved to the east and reached all the way to the Dnieper, and then their movement towards the interfluve of the Oka and Volga came across the Finno-Ugric people who lived here. They also moved south, towards the Carpathian Mountains, the Danube and the Bachkan Peninsula. In the north, their migrations reached the Pripyat River.

From the second half of the millennium BC, e. the uniformity of the Slavic world begins to break down. European tribes acquired bronze weapons, and mounted squads were organized. All this leads to an increase in their military activity. The era of wars, conquests, and migrations is coming. Now the era of peaceful farmers and cattle breeders is becoming a thing of the past. At the turn of the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. e. New communities of people are emerging in Europe. The ancestors of the Slavs take their place among them. They are compactly settled in two regions of Europe. The first is in the northern part of Central Europe: in the future Western Slavs will appear here, and the second is in the Middle Dnieper region; centuries later, the Yemen of our ancestors - the Eastern Slavs - would be formed here and the state of Rus' would arise.

In the X-VII centuries. BC e. this branch of the Slavs masters the smelting of iron from swamp and lake ore. This helps local settlers create new tools and weapons, which significantly changes their way of life, helps them master nature more successfully, and contributes to the progress of local agriculture and cattle breeding. This also helps to wage defensive and offensive wars.

At this time, the Eastern Slavs and the Balts were still close to each other, and only over the centuries did they become completely isolated and cease to understand each other. There were close contacts with the northern Iranian nomadic tribes, from among which the future rivals of the Proto-Slavs subsequently emerged - the Cimmerians, Scythians and Sarmatians.

1. The appearance of the Slavs.

2. The place of the ancestors of the Slavs among the Indo-Europeans.

3.Ancestors of the Slavs and other peoples of Russia.

4. The Great Migration of Peoples.

1. The appearance of the Slavs. The history of the numerous tribes that lived north of the Thracians, Scythians and Sarmatians, that is, in the territory of modern Central and North-Eastern Europe, is known very little to ancient writers. Of the early Greek authors, only Herodotus mentions the population of these countries. The tribes he lists - Neuroi, Androphagi, Melanchlen, Boudins and others - can only be approximately localized. However, much of what Herodotus tells about these tribes correctly reflects some features of their life. For example, Herodotus points to hunting as the most important occupation of the inhabitants of the forest belt of Europe. His story about the North Sea (as the North and Baltic seas were called in ancient times), on the shores of which amber was mined, is also reliable. Some of Herodotus’s messages regarding the geography of countries located far in the northeast are also quite reliable. Along with this, in Herodotus’s narrative about the population of these countries there are also obvious fables. Among them, for example, is the story of the Arimaspi (“one-eyed”), who lived somewhere, probably in Western Siberia, and allegedly took gold from vultures. True, Herodotus himself doubted the reliability of such fables.

Since the time of Herodotus, such a detailed description of the countries of Europe north of the Ister has not appeared in ancient historiography for a long time, like his. Some, moreover, more accurate information is provided by ancient writers, starting only from the 1st century. n. e. The Roman scientist Pliny the Elder mentions the Wends - the population of the regions southeast of the Vistula. The historian Tacitus names not only the Wends, but speaks of the Aestii, Fen (Finns), and indicates approximately what territories they occupied. The geographer Ptolemy also names the Wends among the inhabitants of Sarmatia. Unfortunately, the listed authors, with the exception of Tacitus, limit themselves to only a brief mention of the named tribes and report nothing about their way of life.

Given the paucity of written information, archaeological sources become of utmost importance, as they allow us to get at least a general idea of the largest tribal groups in Central and North-Eastern Europe. The similarities and differences between tribes, reflected in material culture and funeral rites, make it possible to outline groups of ethnically related tribes. However, it should be taken into account that the same archaeological culture can belong to different ethnic groups and, conversely, several local archaeological cultures can be found within the settlement of the same ethnic group. In addition, archaeological sources, which relatively fully reflect the state of the productive forces and some features of the life and ideology of the tribes being studied, cannot serve as the only basis for restoring the social system and history of these tribes.

2. The place of the ancestors of the Slavs among the Indo-Europeans. Part of the Indo-Europeans by the 2nd millennium BC. e. formed a special massif in Central and Eastern Europe, consisting of the ancestors of the future Germans, Slavs, Balts (the descendants of the Balts are now Lithuanians and Latvians), who then spoke the same language.
In the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The ancestors of the Germanic tribes became isolated, and the ancestors of the Balts and Slavs continued to form a common Balto-Slavic group for some time.
The center of settlement of the ancestors of the Slavic peoples (proto-Slavs) became the Vistula River basin. From here they moved west to the Oder River, but they were not allowed further by the ancestors of the Germanic tribes who had already occupied part of Central and Northern Europe. The Proto-Slavs also moved to the east, reaching the Dnieper. They also moved south towards the Carpathian Mountains, the Danube and the Balkan Peninsula.
From the second half of the 2nd millennium, bronze weapons appeared in all European tribes, and horse squads were organized. The era of wars, conquests, and migrations is coming. The time of peaceful farmers and cattle breeders is becoming a thing of the past. At the turn of the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. e. The ancestors of the Slavs settled compactly in two regions of Europe. The first is in the northern part of Central Europe: in the future Western Slavs will appear here, and the second is in the Middle Dnieper region: centuries later the Western Slavs will form here tribes of the Eastern Slavs.
At this time, the Eastern Slavs and the Balts were still close to each other, and only over the centuries did they become completely isolated and cease to understand each other. There were close contacts with the North Iranian Indo-European nomadic tribes, from among which the Cimmerians,Scythians And Sarmatians.
The first invasions. Already at this time, the Proto-Slavs entered into confrontation with nomadic tribes. These were the Cimmerians who occupied the steppe spaces of the Northern Black Sea region and attacked the ancestors of the Eastern Slavs who settled in the Dnieper region. The Slavs built high ramparts on their way, blocked forest roads with rubble and ditches, and built fortified settlements. And yet the forces of peaceful plowmen, cattle breeders and horse-drawn nomadic warriors were unequal. Under the pressure of dangerous neighbors, many Proto-Slavs left the fertile sunny lands and went to the northern forests.
From VI to IV centuries. BC e. the lands of the ancestors of the Eastern Slavs were subjected to a new invasion. They were Scythians. They moved in large masses of horses and lived in wagons. For decades, their nomads moved from the east into the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region. Scythians pushed back the Cimmerians and became dangerous neighbors of the Slavs and Balts. Part of their lands was captured by the Scythians, and the local population was forced to flee to the forest thickets.

Scythians, like the Cimmerians, having captured the space from the Lower Volga region to the mouth of the Danube, they stood as an insurmountable wall between the Balto-Slavic population living in the forest-steppe and forest zones and the rapidly developing peoples living on the warm shores of the Mediterranean, Aegean, and Black Seas.

Greek colonies and Scythians. By the time the Scythians occupied the Northern Black Sea region, Greek colonies already existed there. These were city-states that conducted active trade. Various handicrafts were brought here from Greece, including fabrics, dishes, and expensive weapons. And from the shores of the Black Sea, Greek ships left loaded with bread, fish, wax, honey, leather, furs, and wool. Note that bread, wax, honey, furs from time immemorial were precisely the goods that the Slavic world supplied to the market. It is known that half of the grain consumed in Athens came from the Northern Black Sea region.

The Greeks also exported slaves from their colonies. These were captives captured by the Scythians during raids against their northern neighbors. However, these slaves were not popular in Greece, as they were freedom-loving and obstinate. In addition, unlike the Greeks, they drank wine undiluted, quickly became drunk and therefore could not work well.
This whole multilingual, dynamic, trading, rapidly developing world was far from the farmers of the Dnieper region, since the Scythians firmly controlled all the routes to the south and were successful intermediaries in the then international trade.
The Scythians eventually created a powerful state in the Northern Black Sea region led by kings. Part of the Proto-Slavic population became part of Scythian power. The ancestors of the Slavs were still engaged in agriculture and over the years passed on their experience to the Scythians, especially those who lived nearby. So some Scythian tribes switched to a sedentary lifestyle. And the Greeks called such Scythians and Proto-Slavs Scythian ploughmen. And later, after the disappearance of the Scythians, the Greeks began to call those who lived here Scythians Slavs.

3.Ancestors of the Eastern Slavs and new enemies. It was precisely in Scythian times that a population was formed that spoke Slavic, and not the Baltoslavic language.
During archaeological excavations of settlements in the Dnieper region, it was found that local farmers began to live in small huts located inside fortified settlements. The large ancestral houses of the “Trypillians” are a thing of the past. Families became even more isolated. These fortifications were placed on hills where there was a good view, or among swampy lowlands that were difficult for the enemy to pass through. One such fortress could accommodate up to 1000 huts, where individual families lived. And the hut itself was a chopped wooden structure without partitions. There were small outbuildings and a shed adjacent to the house. In the center of the house there was a stone or adobe hearth. Large semi-dugouts with hearths are also often found. Such dwellings were better able to withstand severe frosts.
Starting from the 2nd century. BC e. The Dnieper region experienced a new onslaught of enemies. Because of the Don, nomadic hordes of Sarmatians advanced here.
The Sarmatians launched a series of attacks on the Scythian state, captured the lands of the Scythians and penetrated deep into the northern forest-steppe zone. Archaeologists have discovered here traces of the military defeat of a number of settlements and fortified settlements. Centuries-old achievements were in vain. After the Sarmatian defeat, the Eastern Slavs in many ways had to start all over again - develop the land, build villages.
Other peoples of Russia in ancient times. In those distant times, not only tribes were formed, which later turned into the Eastern Slavs, but later gave rise to three Slavic peoples - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. In the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. In the vastness of the future Russia, other ethnic communities continued to emerge simultaneously. The Balts occupied large areas to the north of the Slavic societies, settling from the shores of the Baltic to the interfluve of the Oka and Volga.
Since ancient times, the Finno-Ugric peoples also lived close to the Balts and Slavs, who at that time were the rulers of vast territories of the northeastern part of Europe - right up to the Ural Mountains and Trans-Urals. In the impenetrable forests along the banks of the Oka, Volga, Kama, Belaya, Chusovaya and other local rivers and lakes lived the ancestors of the present-day Mari, Mordovians, Komi, Zyryans and other Finno-Ugric peoples. The northern inhabitants were mainly hunters and fishermen. Their life, unlike the southerners, changed slowly.
Since ancient times, the regions of the North Caucasus were inhabited by the ancestors of the Circassians, Ossetians (Alans) and other mountain peoples, known according to Greek authors.
The Adygs (the Greeks called them Meotians) became the main part of the population of the Bosporus Kingdom, which arose on the Taman Peninsula and in the foothills of the Caucasus Mountains. Its center was the Greek city of Panticapaeum, and it included multinational residents of these places: Greeks, Scythians, Circassians, also belonging to the Indo-European group of peoples.
In the 1st century n. e. Jewish communities also appeared in the cities of the Bosporan kingdom. Since then, Jews - merchants, artisans, moneylenders - lived in the future southern Russian territories. Having come here from the Middle East in search of a better life, they began to speak Greek and adopted many of the local customs and customs. In the future, part of the Jewish population would move to the East Slavic cities that arose here, giving rise to the constant presence of Jews in them.
In the Caucasian foothills, around the same time, another powerful tribal union became known - the Alans, the ancestors of today's Ossetians. The Alans were related to the Sarmatians. Already in the 1st century. BC e. The Alans attacked Armenia and other states and proved themselves to be tireless and brave warriors. Their main occupation was cattle breeding, and their main means of transportation was the horse.
Various Turkic-speaking tribes formed in Southern Siberia. One of them became famous thanks to ancient Chinese chronicles. These are the Xiongnu people, who in the III - II centuries. BC e. conquered many surrounding peoples, in particular the inhabitants of the Altai Mountains. A few centuries later, the strengthened Xiongnu, or Huns, began to advance into Europe.

4.Great Migration and Eastern Europe. From the end of the 4th century. n. e. Numerous movements of tribes began, which went down in history under the name of the Great Migration of Peoples.
By this time, many peoples of Eurasia had learned to make iron weapons, mounted horses, and created fighting squads. The tribes were driven forward by the desire to find booty and new rich, already developed lands of the Roman Empire.
The Germanic tribes of the Goths were the first to move on the territory of Eastern Europe. Previously, they lived in Scandinavia, later settled in the Southern Baltic, but from there they were pushed out by the Slavs. Through the lands of the Balts and Slavs, the Goths came to the Northern Black Sea region and lived there for two centuries. From here they attacked Roman possessions and fought with the Sarmatians. The Goths were led by the leader Germanarich, who, according to some information, lived 100 years.
In the 70s IV century From the east, tribes of the Huns approached the Goths. Fleeing, some of the Goths moved to the borders of the Roman Empire. The Huns were a Turkic people, and with their appearance, the dominance of the Turko-Mongol tribes began in the steppe expanses of Eurasia. They knew ironworking, forged swords, arrows, and daggers; During their stays, the Huns lived in adobe houses and half-dugouts, but the basis of their economy was nomadic cattle breeding. All the Huns were excellent horsemen - men, women and children. Their main force was light cavalry. According to Roman historians, the appearance of the Huns was terrible: short, overgrown with hair, dense, with thick heads, crooked legs, dressed in fur malachai and shod in rough shoes made from goat skins. Legends were told about their savage morals and atrocities.
In their movement, the Huns carried away everyone who came across them on the way. Together with them, the Finno-Ugric tribes and Altai peoples were removed from their places. This entire huge horde first fell upon the Alans, threw some of them back to the Caucasus, and also dragged the rest into its invasion. The heavy, armored Alan cavalry, armed with swords and spears, became an essential part of the Hunnic army. Having defeated the Goths, they went through the South Slavic settlements with fire and sword. Once again, fleeing death, people fled to the shelter of forests and abandoned fertile black soils. Some of the Slavs, like the Goths, also rushed west along with the Huns.
The Huns made the lands along the Danube, which had beautiful pastures, the center of their power. From here they attacked Roman possessions and terrified all of Europe. Since then, the name of the Huns has become a household name. It meant rude and merciless barbarians, destroyers of civilization.
The power of the Huns reached its highest power under their leader Attila. He was a talented commander, an experienced diplomat, but a rude and merciless ruler. The fate of Attila once again showed that no matter how great, powerful, and terrible a ruler may be, he cannot prolong his power and his greatness forever. Attila's attempt to conquer all of Western Europe ended in 451 with a grandiose battle in Northern France on the Catalaunian fields. The Roman army, which included detachments from many nations of Europe, completely defeated the equally multinational army of Attila. The leader of the Huns soon died, and strife began between the Hun leaders. The power of the Huns collapsed. But the movement of peoples, foamed by the Hunnic wave, continued for several centuries.
Participants Great Migration The Slavs also began, and it was then that they first appeared in documents under their own name.

Literature:

1. Textbook history of Russia, M, 2011.

2. Rybakov History of Russia

Questions and tasks for self-test:

1. Determine what process in history is called the Great Migration of Peoples and to what period of time this process belongs?

2. Give the reasons why it is possible to establish that there are few historical facts about the ancestors of the Slavs.

3. How did ancient history determine the main occupations of the Slavs and explain why these particular occupations were developed among the Slavs?

4. Name the ancestors of the peoples of Russia.

Is it possible to call the “Trypillians” and other tribes that lived in Eastern Europe the ancestors of the Slavs? Of course not. At this time, the Indo-Europeans had not yet divided into separate languages and peoples. But at the turn of the 3rd–2nd millennium BC. e. In the territories between the Vistula and the Dnieper, the separation of the tribes of the ancestors of European peoples begins to be visible. The Indo-Europeans, continuing to move and group in the vast expanses of Eurasia, already in the 2nd millennium BC. e. formed a special group of Germans, Balts, and Slavs in Central and Eastern Europe. They all spoke one more language and represented one whole for a number of centuries, and, of course, they were already sharply different from those who settled in India, Central Asia or the Caucasus.

The ancestors of the Slavs moved to the east and reached all the way to the Dnieper, and then their movement towards the interfluve of the Oka and Volga came across the Finno-Ugric people who lived here. They also moved south, towards the Carpathian Mountains, the Danube and the Balkan Peninsula. In the north, their migrations reached the Pripyat River.

From the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. the uniformity of the Slavic world begins to break down. European tribes acquired bronze weapons, and mounted squads were organized. All this leads to an increase in their military activity. The era of wars, conquests, and migrations is coming. Now the era of peaceful farmers and cattle breeders is becoming a thing of the past. At the turn of the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. e. New communities of people are emerging in Europe. The ancestors of the Slavs take their place among them. They are compactly settled in two regions of Europe. The first is in the northern part of Central Europe: in the future Western Slavs will appear here, and the second is in the Middle Dnieper region; centuries later, the tribes of our ancestors - the Eastern Slavs - would form here and the state of Rus' would arise.

In the X–VII centuries. BC e. this branch of the Slavs masters the smelting of iron from swamp and lake ore. This helps local settlers create new tools and weapons, which significantly changes their way of life, helps them master nature more successfully, and contributes to the progress of local agriculture and cattle breeding. This also helps to wage defensive and offensive wars.

History of Russia from ancient times to the present day Andrey Nikolaevich Sakharov

Chapter 1. ORIGIN OF THE SLAVS. THEIR NEIGHBORS AND ENEMIES

§ 1. The place of the Slavs among the Indo-Europeans

At the turn of the 3rd–2nd millennium BC. e. In the territories between the Vistula and the Dnieper, the separation of the tribes of the ancestors of European peoples begins. Indo-Europeans are the ancient population of vast territories of Europe and Asia, continuing to move and group in the vast expanses of Eurasia, already in the 2nd millennium BC. e. formed a special group of Germans, Balts, and Slavs in Central and Eastern Europe. They all spoke another language and for a number of centuries represented one whole, and of course, they were already sharply different from those who settled in India, Central Asia or the Caucasus.

Later, in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. BC, the Germanic tribes became isolated, and the Balts (Lithuanians, Latvians) and Slavs formed a common Balto-Slavic group of peoples, which began to occupy large areas of Eastern Europe. Moreover, the Balts settled in the northern regions of Eastern Europe, the Germanic tribes moved to the west, and other branches of Indo-Europeans settled in the south - the Greeks and Italics.

The Vistula River basin became the center of concentration of the Slavic peoples. From here they moved west to the Oder River, but were not allowed further by the German tribes that had already occupied most of Central and Northern Europe.

The ancestors of the Slavs moved to the east and reached the Dnieper, and then their movement towards the interfluve of the Oka and Volga was prevented by the Finno-Ugric people who lived here. They also moved south, towards the Carpathian Mountains, the Danube and the Balkan Peninsula. In the north, their settlements stretched to the Pripyat River.

From the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. the uniformity of the Slavic world begins to break down. European tribes acquired bronze weapons, and mounted squads were organized. This leads to an increase in their military activity. The era of wars, conquests, and migrations is coming. The time of peaceful farmers and cattle breeders is becoming a thing of the past. At the turn of the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. e. New communities of people are emerging in Europe. Their place among them is occupied by the ancestors of the Slavs, who settled compactly in two regions of Europe. The first is in the northern part of Central Europe; in the future Western Slavs will appear here, and the second - in the Middle Dnieper region; centuries later, the tribes of our ancestors - the Eastern Slavs - would form here and the state of Rus' would arise.

§ 2. First invasions

Already in these distant times, barely separated from the Germanic tribes, while still closely connected with the Balts, the ancestors of the Slavs entered into a tough confrontation with strong and cruel newcomers from the depths of Asia. These were the nomadic tribes of the Indo-Iranians - the Cimmerians. In a number of ancient languages, their name came from the word “strongman”, “hero”. The Cimmerians occupied the steppe spaces of the Northern Black Sea region and attacked the ancestors of the Eastern Slavs who settled to the north. The Slavs poured high ramparts on their way, making it difficult for the cavalry to run, blocked forest roads with rubble and ditches, built fortified settlements, and yet the forces of peaceful plowmen, cattle breeders and horse-drawn nomadic warriors were unequal. Under the pressure of dangerous neighbors, the Slavs left the fertile sunny lands and went into the northern forests.

Periodically, century after century, from the depths of Asia, breaking through a wide and free passage between the southern spurs of the Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea, nomadic hordes entered Eastern Europe, and the Eastern Slavs were the first to stand in their way. The fight against nomads has since become a constant part of their lives. This endless confrontation claimed thousands of lives, distracted people from peaceful work, forced them to flee to the north in difficult days, and led to the destruction of settlements. All this, of course, slowed down the overall development of Eastern Europe.

From VI to IV centuries. BC e. the lands of the ancestors of the Eastern Slavs were subjected to a new invasion. They were Iranian nomads - the Scythians. They moved in large masses of horses and lived in wagons. For decades, their nomads moved from the East to the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region. The Scythians pushed back the Cimmerians and occupied their territories. They now became dangerous southern neighbors of the Slavs and Balts, seized part of their lands, and the local population, as before, was forced to flee in the forest thickets from the raids of nomads.

The Scythians, like the Cimmerians, having captured vast spaces from the Lower Volga region to the mouth of the Danube, essentially stood up as an insurmountable wall between the Balto-Slavic population living in the forest-steppe and forest zones and the rapidly developing peoples who lived on the fertile and warm shores of the Mediterranean, Aegean and Black Seas.

§ 3. Greek colonies and Scythians

By the time the Scythians occupied the northern shores of the Black Sea with their nomads, Greek colonies had already appeared on the southern coast of Crimea, near the Kerch Strait, at the mouth of the Southern Bug, founded by brave sailors, merchants from famous Greek cities located in the Balkans and Asia Minor. These were fortresses - trading posts that traded with the entire surrounding world. Various handicrafts were brought here from Greek cities, including fabrics, dishes, and expensive weapons. And from the shores of the Black Sea, Greek ships left loaded with bread, fish, wax, honey, leather, furs, and wool. Let us note that from time immemorial, bread, wax, honey, furs were goods that were supplied to the market by the Slavic world. It is known that half of the grain consumed in Athens came from here. Later, the Greeks exported slaves bought here at markets from their colonies. These were captives captured by the Scythians during raids against their northern neighbors.

But this whole multilingual, dynamic, trading, rapidly developing world was far from the farmers of the Dnieper region, since the Scythians firmly controlled all the routes to the south and were successful intermediaries in the then international trade.

Over time, the Scythians created a powerful state in the Northern Black Sea region, centered in the Lower Dnieper region, uniting all Scythian tribes led by kings. There are still mounds built over the graves of the kings. Part of the ancient Slavic population that remained on their lands became part of the Scythian state. And later, after the Scythians disappeared from the pages of history, the Greeks began to call the Slavs who lived here Scythians.

§ 4. The emergence of the Eastern Slavs and new enemies

It was during the time of the Scythians that the tribal formations of the Eastern Slavs were born, and a population was formed that spoke Slavic, and not the Baltoslavic language. Where the Dnieper farmers-plowmen lived, the Slavic tribe of the Polyans and their main city, Kyiv, would later appear. Despite the harsh natural conditions compared to Western Europe and the constant onslaught of nomads, the Eastern Slavs slowly but persistently improved their lives.

Starting from the 2nd century. BC e. these lands experienced a new onslaught of enemies. From the east, from beyond the Don, nomadic hordes of Sarmatians advanced here, who inflicted a series of blows on the Scythian state, captured the local lands and penetrated deep into the northern forest-steppe zone. Archaeologists have discovered here traces of the military defeat of a number of settlements and fortified settlements. At the same time, the Sarmatians invaded the territory of the Greek colonies in the Northern Black Sea region. There is their “barbarization”, decline, simplification of life. The barbarian nomads did not rise to the then high level of northern farmers or Greek sailors, artisans and traders, but tried to bring them down to their level. And often the aliens both in this era and in subsequent ones succeeded. Centuries-old achievements were in vain. Likewise, after the Sarmatian defeat, the Eastern Slavs in many ways had to start all over again - to develop lands and build their own villages.

The Sarmatians often had female leaders at the head of their tribes. These were traces of the former matriarchy. And it is no coincidence that ancient Slavic legends speak of the struggle of the people's heroes with Baba Yaga, who stood at the head of the steppe army.

§ 5. Other peoples on the territory of Russia in ancient times

In those distant times, not only tribes were formed, which later turned into the Eastern Slavs, but later gave rise to three Slavic peoples who inhabited Russia for many centuries - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. In the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. In the vastness of the future Russia, other ethnic communities other than the Slavs continue to emerge at the same time. We have already said that in parallel with the Slavic world, the world of the Balts is being formed - the future Lithuanians, Latvians and others - who occupied large spaces to the north of the Slavic societies. They were already settling from the shores of the Baltic to the area between the Oka and Volga rivers.

Since ancient times, the Finno-Ugric peoples also lived close to the Balts and Slavs, who at that time were the rulers of vast territories in the northeastern part of Europe up to the Ural Mountains and in the Trans-Urals. In the impenetrable forests along the banks of the Oka, Volga, Kama, Belaya, Chusovaya and other local rivers and lakes lived the ancestors of today's peoples - the Mordvins, Mari, Cheremis (Meri), Komi, Zyryans, Perm and other Finno-Ugric peoples. They were as ancient as the Balts and Slavs, and often lived interspersed with them. All these peoples had much in common in their economic structure, way of life, habits, traditions, clothing and even jewelry. The northern inhabitants were mainly hunters and fishermen. Their lives, unlike the southerners, changed slowly.

In the southern regions of Eastern Europe, tribes arose in the neighborhood of the ancestors of the Slavs, whose descendants still live today in the same territories and are part of Russia; Since ancient times, in the regions of the North Caucasus, the ancestors of the Circassians, Ossetians (Alans) and other mountain peoples, known from the works of Greek authors, lived.

The Meotians became part of the population of the so-called Bosporus Kingdom, which arose in the Scythian era on the Taman Peninsula, near the Kerch Strait, in the foothills of the Caucasus Mountains. Its center was the Greek city of Panticapaeum, and the population included Greeks, Scythians and mostly local residents - the Circassians, who also belonged to the Indo-European group of peoples.

Beyond the Urals, in Southern Siberia, various Turkic-speaking tribes formed. One of them became famous thanks to ancient Chinese chronicles. These are the Xiongnu people, who in the 3rd–2nd centuries. BC e. conquered other surrounding peoples, in particular the inhabitants of the Altai Mountains, whom the Chinese called the Yuezhi.

§ 6. The Great Migration and Eastern Europe

From the end of the 4th century. n. e. numerous Germanic tribes moved from raiding the Roman Empire to conquest. By this time, many peoples of Eurasia had learned to make iron weapons, mounted horses, and created fighting squads. War and long-distance campaigns became the order of the day in the Eurasian part of the world. The leaders called the peoples on campaigns. Thus, the Germanic tribes were driven forward by the desire to gain loot and new, rich lands already populated and developed by the Romans. On their way lay rich cities and luxurious estates. Thus began the Great Migration of Peoples to the West. But this phenomenon turned out to be characteristic of the entire Eurasian continent, from the Atlantic to the Trans-Urals and Southern Siberia. The peoples of Eastern Europe, including the Slavs, Finno-Ugrians, Balts, Alans, etc., also took part in the Great Migration, albeit with a great historical delay.

The Germanic tribes of the Goths were the first to move on the territory of Eastern Europe. Previously, they lived in Scandinavia, later settled in the southern Baltic, but from there they were pushed out by the Western Slavs, and the Goths set off on their journey. From the shores of the Baltic in the 2nd–3rd centuries. n. e. Through the lands of the Balts and Eastern Slavs, they came to the steppe spaces of modern Ukraine and lived there for two centuries. The words “bread”, “plough”, “sword”, “helmet” remained from the Goths in the Slavic language.

In the 70s IV century A new invasion began from the East in the form of the Huns. Having failed in the east, these warlike tribes moved west and in the 4th century. were already on the approaches to the Northern Black Sea region - the road of all nomadic hordes from the east.

The invasion of the Huns was another, perhaps the largest, phenomenon in the history of the migration of peoples.

The Huns were a Turkic people, and with their appearance, the dominance of the Turko-Mongol tribes began in the steppe expanses of Eurasia. They knew ironworking, forged swords, arrows, and daggers. During their stays, the Huns lived in adobe houses and half-dugouts, but the basis of their economy was nomadic cattle breeding.

In their movement, the Huns carried away everyone who came across them on the way. Together with them, Finno-Ugric tribes and Altai peoples were removed from their places. This entire huge horde first fell upon the Alans, threw some of them back to the Caucasus, and also dragged the rest into its invasion.

Then the Huns moved to the Black Sea steppes and defeated the Gothic state. They also went through the South Slavic settlements with fire and sword. Once again, fleeing death, the Slavic population fled to the shelter of forests and abandoned the fertile southern black soils.

The Huns made the lands along the Danube, with beautiful pastures, the center of their power. From here they attacked Roman possessions and terrified all of Europe.

The power of the Huns reached its highest glory under their leader Attila. He was a talented commander, an experienced diplomat, but a rude and merciless ruler.

Attila's attempt to conquer all of Western Europe ended in 451 with a grandiose battle in Northern France, on the Catalaunian fields of the province of Champagne. The Roman army, which included detachments from many nations of Europe, completely defeated the equally multinational army of Attila. The leader of the Huns took the remnants of his army to the Danube, where he soon died during a feast at his next wedding. Tired of food and wine, he fell asleep and choked on the blood gushing from his nose into his throat.

Soon, strife began between the Hunnic leaders, and the Hunnic power disintegrated. But the movement of peoples, foamed by the Hunnic wave, continued for several centuries.

§ 7. Antes and the first East Slavic state

The Slavs also took part in the Great Migration. But it didn’t happen right away.

After the fall of the Huns, the Danube and Dnieper banks, forest clearings in the thickets along the Pripyat, Desna, and upper Oka rivers were repopulated. This was, as scientists say, a genuine demographic explosion, that is, a rapid and enormous increase in the Slavic population and its spread over large areas of Eastern Europe. This happened in the 5th–6th centuries. n. e. First of all, the Slavic population grew where the Huns' cavalry did not reach - beyond the Carpathians, in Central and Northern Europe. Powerful migration processes are taking place in the Slavic environment. The population, having taken refuge in the northeastern forests, begins to return to the south, to their ancient ancestral lands, to the regions of the Middle Dnieper region, the basins of the Dniester and Bug rivers. From Povislenie and beyond the Carpathians, the Slavs moved to fertile lands along the Danube, and from the 5th century. the population of these lands for a long time becomes purely Slavic in composition.

The Slavs occupy territories abandoned by the Germans, advancing to the Elbe River in the west and from the Middle Dnieper further to the east.

At the same time, major changes in the social composition of society are taking place in the Slavic environment - the role of tribal leaders and elders is strengthening, fighting squads are formed around them, society begins to be divided into rich and poor.

Trade between the Dnieper and Danube residents with the Balkans and Greek cities is being resumed.

Peace and tranquility in the Slavic lands have borne fruit. Since the 5th century. n. e. On the lands where the Scythians, Sarmatians, and Huns had previously ruled, in the Dnieper and Dniester basins a powerful alliance of East Slavic tribes was formed, who were called Antes, which in Iranian dialect meant “residents of the outskirts.” This is exactly what the Antes - the ancient Eastern Slavs - were in relation to the Iranian tribes living in the southeastern part of Russia. And the ancient Greek authors convince us that they were Slavs. They say that in the V-VI centuries. In the southeastern part of Europe, two large Slavic tribal formations emerged. One is the tribal union of the Sklavins, or Slavs, and the second is the related union of the Antes.

The tribal union of Sklavins was formed in the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula, and the Antes were located in the areas from the lower Danube to the Sea of Azov.

Relying on the developed territories, the Antes began in the 5th century. a powerful movement to the Danube region, to the Balkan Peninsula, to the Byzantine Empire, while at odds with the Balkan Slavs. Byzantium even tried to pit them against each other.

During these decades, the Slavs undertook long-distance risky campaigns, created strong military alliances, united tribal squads, formed river and sea flotillas, which quickly moved along rivers and seas over long distances. They constantly cross the Danube, capture Byzantine cities, capture the inhabitants and demand ransom for them. Detachments of the Slavs even reach the Mediterranean shores. Essentially, like the Germanic tribes in the west, the Eastern Slavs begin to colonize the territories of the Byzantine Empire in the Balkans.

To resist the pressure of the Antes, the Byzantine emperors built a number of fortresses along the Danube. Unable to contain the onslaught of the Slavs, the Byzantine authorities try to buy off their invasions with rich gifts - gold, expensive fabrics, precious vessels, provide them with some border territories, and take Slavic leaders into their service.

But it is not only to the south, to the Balkans, that Slavic squads are rushing. Large masses of the Slavic population living in the vast expanses of Central and Eastern Europe from the Baltic to the Carpathians are involved in the colonization flow.

From the Baltic basin, part of the Slavic tribes moves west, to the lands of the Germans who went deep into Europe. Another part of them inhabits lands located to the east - right up to the shores of Lake Ilmen. Here, at the intersection of ancient trade routes, from the shores of the Baltic to the east and south, two Slavic migration flows meet. One is the Slavic colonists from the west, and the other is the Slavic settlers from the south, who periodically went north under the onslaught of nomadic hordes.

This is how the formation of a powerful Slavic center took place in the Ilmen region; here later a union of tribes arose, which were called the Novgorod Slovenes.

Essentially, they stretched across all of Eastern Europe in the 5th–6th centuries. strong threads connecting all Slavs living in these territories. Migration processes became the lever that formed Slavic tribal unions.

§ 8. The fight against the Avars and Khazars. Bulgarians

But the heyday of the Ant tribal union of the Slavs was not long. In the middle of the 6th century. a new wave of nomads emerged from the depths of Asia - these were the Avars, a large Turkic horde that advanced into Eastern Europe, waged constant wars with Byzantium and eventually settled in the Danube valleys, on the slopes of the Carpathian Mountains; The local mild climate, rich pastures and fertile lands have long attracted many conquerors here.

As 200 years ago during the Hunnic invasion, the southern regions of the Eastern Slavs were attacked. The chronicler later wrote with bitterness that the Avars “tortured” the Slavs, mocked Slavic women, harnessing them to carts instead of oxen and horses.

But the time has passed when the Slavs resignedly endured the violence of nomads. By this time, they themselves had already gone on campaigns against their neighbors more than once and had strong squads. During the VI–VII centuries. The Slavs waged constant wars with the Avars and concluded peace treaties. During such peace negotiations, one of the Slavic leaders named Mezamir was treacherously killed. Byzantine authors spoke about this.

Only after the Frankish troops at the end of the 7th century. The Avars were defeated, and the rapid decline of their nomadic power began. The final defeat of the Avars was inflicted by the Turkic horde from the east - the Khazars. They passed through the Lower Volga region to the Northern Black Sea region and occupied territories in the foothills of the Caucasus. For many centuries, these nomads became dangerous neighbors of the Eastern Slavs. But this time the Slavs managed to survive. Only a part of their tribes, especially on the left bank of the Dnieper, and then in the Oka-Volga interfluve, found themselves dependent on the Khazar Khaganate for several decades. The Finno-Ugric and Oka-Volga peoples - the Burtases, Mordovians, Maris and some others - also became vassals of the Khazars. The ruler of the Khazars called himself kagan or khan of khans.

The capital of Khazaria, the city of Itil, was founded at the mouth of the Volga. Subsequently, a significant part of the Khazars switched to a sedentary lifestyle. They were the first and only ones in Eastern Europe to profess the Jewish religion, but a significant part of the Khazars converted to Islam. Khazaria has developed neighborly, but difficult relations with the lands of the Eastern Slavs. Slavic trade with the East passed through Khazaria. Many Slavic merchants traded in Itil. Peaceful relations were interspersed with military conflicts, because the Slavs sought to liberate their southeastern territories, the left bank of the Dnieper, from Khazar rule.

While the Khazars settled in the territory of the Lower Volga, the Don region, and the North Caucasus, they encountered the Turkic horde - the Bulgarians, who also left Asia for the vastness of Europe.

The Bulgarians, led by their khan Kubrat in the Black Sea region, in the area of Greek colonial cities, created at the end of the 6th - beginning of the 7th century. State of Great Bulgaria. But it could not withstand the pressure of the Khazars and fell apart. After the death of Kubrat, part of the Bulgarians moved north to the Middle Volga and created a new state - Volga Bulgaria with its center in the city of Bulgar, which later ended up on the eastern borders of Rus', occupying lands along the middle Volga and in the lower reaches of the Oka and Kama. The rest of the Bulgarian horde led by Khan Asparuh at the end of the 7th century. went to the west, familiar to the nomads, and settled on the Balkan Peninsula, in the lands of the Sklavin tribal union. Subsequently, the Bulgarians settled down, dissolved in the populous agricultural Slavic environment, adopted the Slavic language and gave rise to Slavic Bulgaria in the Balkans.

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The stories of all peoples go back to ancient times. People often traveled long distances in search of suitable conditions for their homes. You can learn more about who the Indo-Europeans are and how they are related to the Slavs from this article.

Who is this?

Speakers of an Indo-European language are called Indo-Europeans. Currently this ethnic group includes:

Slavs
Germans.
Armenians
Hindus.
Celts.
Grekov.

Why are these peoples called Indo-European? Almost two centuries ago, great similarities were discovered between European languages and Sanskrit, the dialect spoken by Indians. The group of Indo-European languages includes almost all European languages. The exceptions are Finnish, Turkic and Basque.

The original habitat of the Indo-Europeans was Europe, but due to the nomadic lifestyle of most peoples, it spread far beyond the original territory. Now representatives of the Indo-European group can be found on all continents of the world. The historical roots of the Indo-Europeans go far into the past.

Homeland and ancestors

You may ask, how is it that Sanskrit and European languages have similar sounds? There are many theories about who the Indo-Europeans were. Some scientists suggest that the ancestor of all peoples with similar languages were the Aryans, who, as a result of migrations, formed different peoples with different dialects, which remained similar in the main. Opinions also differ about the ancestral homeland of the Indo-Europeans. According to the Kurgan theory, widespread in Europe, the territories of the Northern Black Sea region, as well as the lands between the Volga and Dnieper, can be considered the homeland of this group of peoples. Why then does the population of different European countries differ so much? Everything is determined by differences in climatic conditions. After mastering the technologies of domesticating horses and making bronze, the ancestors of the Indo-Europeans began to actively migrate in different directions. The difference in territories explains the differences in Europeans, which took many years to form.

Historical roots

The first option is Western Asia or Western Azerbaijan.
The second option, which we have already described above, is certain lands of Ukraine and Russia, on which the so-called Kurgan culture was located.
And the last option is eastern or central Europe, or more precisely the Danube Valley, the Balkans or the Alps.

Each of these theories has its opponents and supporters. But this question has still not been resolved by scientists, although research has been ongoing for more than 200 years. And since the homeland of the Indo-Europeans is not known, it is also not possible to determine the territory of the origin of the Slavic culture. After all, this will require accurate data about the ancestral homeland of the main ethnic group. The tangled tangle of history, which contains more mysteries than answers, is beyond the power of modern humanity to unravel. And the time of the birth of the Indo-European language is also shrouded in darkness: some call the date 8 centuries BC, others - 4.5 centuries. BC.

Traces of a former community

Despite the isolation of peoples, traces of commonality can be easily traced among the various descendants of the Indo-Europeans. What traces of the former community of Indo-Europeans can be cited as evidence?

Firstly, this is the language. He is the thread that still connects people on different parts of the planet. For example, Slavic people have such general concepts as “god”, “hut”, “axe”, “dog” and many others.
The commonality can also be seen in the applied arts. The embroidery patterns of many European nations are strikingly similar to each other.
The common homeland of the Indo-European peoples can also be traced by “animal” traces. Many of them still have a cult of the deer, and some countries hold annual holidays in honor of the awakening of the bear in the spring. As you know, these animals are found only in Europe, and not in India or Iran.
In religion one can also find confirmation of the theory of community. The Slavs had a pagan god Perun, and the Lithuanians had Perkunas. In India, the Thunderer was called Parjanye, the Celts called him Perkunia. And the image of the ancient god is very similar to the main deity of Ancient Greece - Zeus.

Genetic markers of Indo-Europeans

The main distinguishing feature of the Indo-Europeans is their linguistic community. Despite some similarities, different peoples of Indo-European origin are very different from each other. But there is other evidence of their commonality. Although genetic markers do not 100% prove the common origin of these peoples, they still add more common characteristics.

The most common haplogroup among Indo-Europeans is R1. It can be found among the peoples who inhabited the territories of Central and Western Asia, India and Eastern Europe. But this gene was not found in some Indo-Europeans. Scientists believe that the language and culture of the Proto-Indo-Europeans were transmitted to these people not through marriage, but through trade and socio-cultural communications.

Who applies

Many modern peoples are descendants of Indo-Europeans. These include the Indo-Iranian peoples, Slavs, Balts, Romanesque peoples, Celts, Armenians, Greeks and Germanic peoples. Each group, in turn, is divided into other, smaller groups. The Slavic branch is divided into several branches:

South;
Eastern;
Western.

The South, in turn, is divided into such famous peoples as Serbs, Croats, Bulgarians, Slovenes. Among the Indo-Europeans there are also completely extinct groups: the Tocharians and Anatolian peoples. The Hittites and Luwians are considered to have appeared in the Middle East two thousand years BC. Among the Indo-European group there is also one people who do not speak the Indo-European language: the Basque language is considered isolated and it has not yet been precisely established where it originates.

Problems

The term "Indo-European problem" appeared in the 19th century. It is connected with the still unclear early ethnogenesis of the Indo-Europeans. What was the population of Europe like during the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages? Scientists have not yet come to a consensus. The fact is that in the Indo-European languages that can be found on the territory of Europe, sometimes elements of non-Indo-European origin are found. Scientists, studying the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans, combine their efforts and use all possible methods: archaeological, linguistic and anthropological. After all, in each of them lies a possible clue to the origin of the Indo-Europeans. But so far these attempts have led nowhere. More or less studied areas are the territories of the Middle East, Africa and Western Europe. The remaining parts remain a huge blank spot on the archaeological map of the world.

Studying the language of Proto-Indo-Europeans also cannot provide scientists with much information. Yes, it is possible to trace the substrate in it - the “traces” of languages supplanted by Indo-European ones. But it is so weak and chaotic that scientists have never come to a consensus about who the Indo-Europeans are.

Settlement

The Indo-Europeans were originally sedentary peoples, and their main occupation was arable farming. But with climate change and the coming cold, they had to begin to develop neighboring lands, which were more favorable for life. From the beginning of the third millennium BC it became the norm for the Indo-Europeans. During the resettlement, they often entered into military conflicts with the tribes living on the lands. Numerous skirmishes are reflected in the legends and myths of many European peoples: Iranians, Greeks, Indians. After the peoples inhabiting Europe were able to domesticate horses and make bronze items, the resettlement gained even greater momentum.

How are Indo-Europeans and Slavs related? You can understand this if you follow their spread. Their spread began from the southeast of Eurasia, which then moved to the southwest. As a result, the Indo-Europeans settled all of Europe as far as the Atlantic. Some of the settlements were located on the territory of the Finno-Ugric peoples, but they did not go further than them. The Ural Mountains, which were a serious obstacle, stopped Indo-European settlement. In the south they advanced much further and settled in Iran, Iraq, India and the Caucasus. After the Indo-Europeans settled across Eurasia and began to lead again, their community began to disintegrate. Under the influence of climatic conditions, peoples became more and more different from each other. Now we can see how strongly anthropology was influenced by the living conditions of the Indo-Europeans.

Results

Modern descendants of Indo-Europeans inhabit many countries of the world. They speak different languages, eat different foods, but still share common distant ancestors. Scientists still have many questions about the ancestors of the Indo-Europeans and their settlement. We can only hope that, over time, comprehensive answers will be received. As well as the main question: “Who are the Indo-Europeans?”