History of genetics in dates. Outstanding scientists in the field of genetics Famous doctors of genetics

In California, employees of Sangamo Therapeutics. All other experiments, with the exception of one in China about which little is known, were carried out exclusively on samples of fetal tissue.

For the 44-year-old patient, genome editing was the last chance. Brian Made suffers from Hunter syndrome, which is caused by the liver's inability to produce an important enzyme for breaking down mucopolysaccharides. The enzyme has to be administered artificially, which is very expensive, and to combat the consequences of the disease, Madea had to undergo 26 operations. To help Brian, he was given billions of copies of corrective genes intravenously, as well as genetic tools that would cut the DNA in specific places. The genome of liver cells must change for the rest of your life. If the treatment is successful, the researchers will continue experiments with other inherited diseases.

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2. A stable semi-synthetic organism has been created

They learned how to introduce artificial letters into DNA several years ago; the real breakthrough of 2017 was the stability of the artificial organism. Previously, the bases X and Y were lost during division, and the descendants of the modified bacterium quickly reverted to the “wild” state. Thanks to improved technology and changes made to the base Y, it was possible to maintain artificial “letters” in the bacterial genome for 60 generations. The application of the new technology in practice remains a matter of the future - perhaps it can be used to impart new properties to microorganisms. In the meantime, what is more important for researchers is the fact that they managed to modify one of the fundamental mechanisms of life.

3. “Space gene” discovered

The world is experiencing a “space renaissance”: companies led by SpaceX are rushing into space one after another, and governments are planning to build colonies on Mars and the Moon. However, we should not forget that over millions of years our species and its ancestors evolved to live on the surface of the Earth. It is important to find out in advance how long your stay in space and on other planets will be in order to take the necessary protective measures. Fortunately, the researchers had such an opportunity - astronaut Scott Kelly, who spent about a year on the ISS, and his twin brother Mark, who remained on Earth, agreed to do so.

In addition to the expected physiological changes caused by weightlessness, scientists were surprised to find differences in the brothers' genomes. Scott had a temporary lengthening of telomeres, the ends of chromosomes, as well as changes in the expression of more than 200,000 RNA molecules. The process of turning thousands of genes on and off has been transformed by being in space. Scientists called the set of these changes "". It is not yet known how it affected Scott's health - experiments with the Kelly twins continue.

4. Genetic therapy has been proven effective

In 2017, CRISPR and other gene editing technologies were increasingly used to combat various diseases. Unlike Brian Made's case, most of these techniques do not require large-scale modifications of the genome, and the cells are edited not in the patient's body, but in the laboratory. Such methods are called genetic therapy. In the past year, researchers have repeatedly proven its effectiveness against.

The most striking example is the fight against a dangerous disease, which itself is of a genetic nature. We are talking about cancer - more precisely, so far only about some of its varieties. Researchers have demonstrated that by taking immune cells from lymphoma patients, using gene editing to tune them to fight the tumor and injecting them back into the patient, a high percentage of remission can be achieved. The method, patented under the name Kymriah™, was released in August 2017.

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5. Antibiotic resistance explained at the molecular level

In 2017, concerned scientists announced that it had arrived. A drug that has saved millions of lives for nearly a century is quickly becoming ineffective due to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This occurs due to the rapid reproduction of microorganisms and their ability to exchange genes. One bacterium that has learned to resist the effects of drugs will pass on this skill not only to its descendants, but also to any nearby representatives of its species.

Genetic screening is important not only for adults, but also for unborn children and their parents, and there is progress in this area as well. Thus, last year’s study showed that a new method for diagnosing Down syndrome (and a number of other diseases) increased the accuracy of predictions to 95%. Now potential parents will be able to decide the fate of the fetus without fear of error. The startup goes even further: it promises to accurately predict the height, intelligence and health of an unborn child. He uses new technologies that have made it possible to predict not only diseases and developmental disorders caused by a single mutation, but also conditions formed through the interaction of many genes. In essence, this is eugenics, and a number of ethical questions arise regarding such a practice.

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8. Genetic mechanisms of evolution have been clarified

The foundations of the theory of evolution were Charles Darwin, who discovered natural selection, and Gregor Mendel, who first described the mechanisms of heredity. Scientists of the 20th century were able to learn how evolution works at the molecular level. However, we are still far from fully understanding this process, and every year brings new discoveries. 2017 was no exception. One of the main works on the connection between genetics and evolution was the study of fish of the cichlid family, which demonstrated that not all characteristics of living organisms are explained by heredity. For example, it plays a huge role in the formation of the skull bones of fish.

In addition, scientists have made a number of remarkable fundamental discoveries about the genetic basis of evolution. They managed to understand how the asexual worm is 18 million years old, clarify its role and understand that viruses serve as the most important.

9. Music was recorded on DNA for the first time

DNA is an information storage system that has worked successfully for billions of years. It is reliable and takes up very little space. Therefore, the idea of using it to record information seems obvious, since people are producing and collecting more and more data that needs to be stored somewhere. In 2016, Microsoft scientists translated it to the size of a grain of salt. In 2017, research in this area continued.

Twist Bioscience was able to record on DNA for the first time in history. Two compositions were chosen for this: “Tutu” by Miles Davis (live recording from the 1986 Montreux Jazz Festival) and the Deep Purple hit “Smoke on the Water”. According to the researchers, the recordings turned out to be perfect, and anyone will be able to listen to them, for example, in three hundred years - it will be enough to use a machine that reads DNA. Unlike modern media, recordings using nucleic acids are not subject to rapid destruction. In addition, this method of data storage is so compact that, according to calculations, all the information from the Internet, encoded in DNA, will fit into a large shoe box.

10. Genetic printer and biological teleporter created

Today, 3D printing is used to create houses, metal parts, and even organs. Geneticist John Craig Venter decided not to stop there and built a “genetic printer”

The technology also has a much more fantastic application - “biological teleport”. By sending a printer with the necessary materials to Mars, it will be possible to send it signals via radio to print bacteria. According to Venter, this is the most realistic scenario for the colonization of the Red Planet: first, microorganisms will transform the environment, and then humans will come to terraformed Mars. The idea has already interested Elon Musk.

Genetics is officially one of the young sciences, although factors of heredity and properties of various organisms, including humans themselves, have interested people throughout evolution. Genetics itself is fascinating and unique, but at the same time one of the most complex sciences of our time, requiring many years of research.

To the origins of development

The formation of genetics has a long prehistoric period. The presence of people who had special differences from others, for example, Siamese twins, was said in ancient historical treatises; today we call such phenomena a genetic mutation. And in ancient times these people were perceived as lepers. Descriptions of generations that had blood, tribal ties with each other are found in the Bible, starting from the time of Adam and Eve. Therefore, the designation of genetics as a young science is relative. The laws of heredity, which laid the foundation for the structure of officially recognized science, were first set forth in 1865 by Mendel. For a number of different reasons, these laws were forgotten for more than 30 years, until in 1900 three botanists living in different parts of the planet rediscovered them. So it became common to consider the spring of 1900 as a new science, and the term “genetics” itself appeared six years later in 1906. Since that moment, genetics has stepped far forward, continuously expanding the range of research. Many discoveries have already been made in this area, and not a single one awaits scientists ahead on the way to the main goal - unraveling the nature of the gene.

Important discoveries of genetics in dates

Throughout the existence of science, new discoveries have been observed that influenced the development of one or another area of genetics, there are many of them and they happen constantly, let’s focus on the most interesting of them:

· 1856 - establishment of the factor of inheritance by Mendel;

· 1909 - the emergence of the concept of genotype;

· 1927 - it was proven that X-rays have a direct effect on the mutation of all living organisms;

· 1944 - first DNA research;

· 1953 - the first structural model of the DNA molecule was created;

· 1962 - the first cloning of a living organism was carried out (using an experiment with a frog);

· 1969 - thanks to chemical compounds, the first gene was obtained artificially;

· 1985 - discovery of PCR;

· 1986 - creation of antioncogene, its cloning and the advent of a new era in the fight against cancer;

· 1988 - Human Genome Project;

· 2001 - decoding of the human genome.

Amazing gene discoveries over the past decade

Intelligence gene. The DNA model has made it possible to learn a lot of interesting and unknown things about the human body. Scientists from California made an interesting conclusion; they identified a protein called “klotho”, which is responsible for the mind, in connection with the KL-VS gene. This protein increases your IQ level by six points at once. The most amazing thing is that it can be synthesized artificially in laboratory conditions, which will increase human intelligence.

Gene of stupidity. Scientists from Texas have identified a gene for stupidity. This is the RGS14 gene; in experiments with mice, they found that if the action of this gene is “turned off,” the experimental subjects begin to quickly navigate the maze and remember the location of the objects located there. Researchers hope that it will be possible to create a tool that can block the operation of RGS14 and make humanity smarter, giving previously invisible intellectual abilities, but bringing this idea to life will take many more decades.

Obesity gene. There is a great opportunity to attribute the appearance of extra pounds to the IRX3 gene and blame it for all the bad things. It has been determined that it affects the percentage of fat in relation to total mass. Further research in this area will make it possible to find an effective remedy for excess weight and diabetes.

Happiness gene. London specialists have described a gene, its name is 5-HTTLPR, which is responsible for emotions. The essence of its action is that it supplies cells with serotonin. And he, in turn, is responsible for our emotions, making us happy or sad, it all depends on the accompanying factors. People who have limited amounts of serotonin are more susceptible to depression and low mood. According to British scientists, the longer the 5-HTTLPR variation, the better the delivery of serotonin.

The most unusual experiments

With each round of development of genetics, scientists are trying to make new, previously unknown discoveries, and sometimes they even become interesting, but at the same time ridiculous.

A striking and inexplicable phenomenon is observed in a small town in Brazil, where every fifth woman gives birth to twins; not only that, they are all blond and have blue eyes, which is absolutely not typical for Brazilians. It is assumed that Dr. Mengel, known for his terrible experiments on people, was involved in this; he ruined the lives of thousands of innocent people, for which he was nicknamed the “Angel of Death.” His goal of such experiments was to identify and increase the birth rate of twins, to increase the birth rate of children of the Aryan race. So this brutal doctor visited the described city in Brazil in the 60s with the aim of treating the residents of this settlement. It is impossible to say whether he is involved in the current total birth of twins, since this secret went to the grave with Mengele.

Another experiment of geneticists was the cloning of a frozen mouse; it remained in this state for 16 years. After a number of unsuccessful attempts, scientists still managed to recreate a clone of this unfortunate animal. Who knows, maybe thanks to similar experiments, mammoths and dinosaurs will soon appear on our planet?

fast-growing trees are another gene experiment, this type of plant is capable of reaching 27 meters in height in just six years. This tree was bred not for beauty, but in order to obtain a new, alternative type of fuel.

This is how much unusual things scientists in the field of genetics have learned; many of these discoveries have significantly influenced the course of history and the life of mankind. The limit to the perfection of this science is not yet visible; we will watch with interest the new genetic research of our millennium.

Biology is a very comprehensive science that covers all aspects of the life of every living creature, starting from the structure of its microstructures inside the body and ending with its connection with the external environment and space. That is why this discipline has so many sections. However, one of the youngest, but most promising and especially important today is genetics. It originated later than the others, but managed to become the most relevant, important and voluminous science, having its own goals, objectives and object of study. Let's look at the history of the development of genetics and what this branch of biology represents.

Genetics: subject and object of study

The science received its name only in 1906 at the suggestion of the Englishman Bateson. It can be defined as follows: it is a discipline that studies the mechanisms of heredity and its variability in different species of living beings. Consequently, the main goal of genetics is to elucidate the structure of the structures responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics and to study the very essence of this process.

The objects of study are:

plants;
animals;
bacteria;
mushrooms;
Human.

Thus, she covers with attention all kingdoms of living nature, without forgetting any of the representatives. However, today the research focus is on single-celled protozoa; all genetic experiments are carried out on them, as well as on bacteria.

To arrive at the results now available, the history of the development of genetics has passed a long and thorny path. At different periods of time it was subjected to either intensive development or complete oblivion. However, in the end it still received its rightful place among the entire family of biological disciplines.

Brief history of the development of genetics

To characterize the main milestones in the development of the branch of biology under consideration, we should turn to the not so distant past. After all, genetics originates from the 19th century. And the official date of its birth as a completely separate discipline is considered to be 1900.

By the way, if we talk about the origins, we should note attempts at plant selection and animal crossing for a very long time. After all, farmers and cattle breeders did this back in the 15th century. It just didn't happen from a scientific point of view.

The table “History of the Development of Genetics” will help you master its main historical moments of formation.

Development period	Major discoveries	Scientists
Primary (second half of the 19th century)	Hybridological research in the field of plants (study of generations using the example of a pea species)	Gregory Mendel (1866)
Primary (second half of the 19th century)	Discovery of the process of studying sexual reproduction and its significance for the consolidation and transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring	Strasburger, Gorozhankin, Hertwig, Van Beneveen, Flemming, Chistyakov, Valdeir and others (1878-1883)
Middle (early-mid 20th century)	This is the period of the most intensive growth in the development of genetic research, if we consider the historical era as a whole. A number of discoveries in the field of the cell, its significance and mechanisms of operation, deciphering the structure of DNA, development and crossing, laying all the theoretical foundations of genetics occurred precisely during this period of time	Many domestic scientists and geneticists from around the world: Thomas Morgan, Navashin, Serebryakov, Vavilov, de Vries, Correns, Watson and Crick, Schleiden, Schwann and many others
Modern period (second half of the 20th century until today)	This period is characterized by a number of discoveries in the field of microstructures of living beings: a detailed study of the structure of DNA, RNA, protein molecules, enzymes, hormones, etc. Clarification of the deep mechanisms of coding of traits and their transmission by inheritance, the genetic code and its decoding, mechanisms of translation, transcription, replication, and so on. The subsidiary genetic sciences are of great importance, and quite a few of them were formed during this period.	V. Elving, Noden and others

The table above summarizes the history of the development of genetics. Next, we will consider in more detail the main discoveries of different periods.

Major discoveries of the 19th century

The main works of this period were the works of three scientists from different countries:

in Holland, G. de Vries - studying the characteristics of the inheritance of traits in hybrids of different generations;
in Germany, K. Correns did the same using the example of corn;
in Austria, K. Chermak repeated Mendel’s experiments on seed peas.

All these discoveries were based on the works of Gregory Mendel, written 35 years earlier, who conducted many years of research and recorded all the results in scientific works. However, these data did not arouse interest among his contemporaries.

During the same period, the history of the development of genetics includes a number of discoveries in the study of germ cells in humans and animals. It has been proven that some traits that are inherited are fixed without changes. Others are individual for each organism and are the result of adaptation to environmental conditions. The work was carried out by Strasburger, Chistyakov, Flemming and many others.

Development of science in the 20th century

Since the official date of birth is considered, it is not surprising that it was in the 20th century that the history of the development of genetics was made. The research created by this time allows us to slowly but surely obtain amazing results.

The creation of the latest technological achievements makes it possible to look into microstructures - this further advances genetics in development. So, the following were installed:

DNA and RNA structures;
mechanisms of their synthesis and replication;
protein molecule;
features of inheritance and consolidation;
localization of individual characteristics in chromosomes;
mutations and their manifestations;
access to control the genetic apparatus of the cell appeared.

Probably one of the most important discoveries during this period was the decoding of DNA. This was done by Watson and Crick in 1953. In 1941, it was proven that traits are encoded in protein molecules. From 1944 to 1970, maximum discoveries were made in the field of structure, replication and significance of DNA and RNA.

Modern genetics

The history of the development of genetics as a science at the present stage is manifested in the intensification of its various directions. After all, today there are:

molecular genetics;
medical;
population;
radiation and others.

The second half of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century for the discipline under consideration is considered to be the genomic era. After all, modern scientists intervene directly in the entire genetic apparatus of the body, learn to change it in the right direction, control the processes occurring there, reduce pathological manifestations, and stop them completely.

History of the development of genetics in Russia

In our country, the science in question began its intensive development only in the second half of the 20th century. The thing is that there was a period of stagnation for a long time. These are the times of the reign of Stalin and Khrushchev. It was during this historical era that a split occurred in scientific circles. T.D. Lysenko, who had power, declared that all research in the field of genetics is invalid. And it itself is not science at all. Having enlisted the support of Stalin, he sent all the famous geneticists of that time to their deaths. Among them:

Vavilov;
Serebrovsky;
Koltsov;
Chetverikov and others.

Many were forced to adapt to Lysenko’s demands in order to avoid death and continue research. Some emigrated to the USA and other countries.

Only after Khrushchev left office did genetics in Russia gain freedom in development and intensive growth.

Domestic geneticists

The most significant discoveries that the science in question can be proud of are those that were realized by our compatriots. The history of the development of genetics in Russia is associated with such names as:

Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov (the doctrine of plant immunity, etc.);
Nikolai Konstantinovich Koltsov (chemical mutagenesis);
N. V. Timofeev-Resovsky (founder of radiation genetics);
V. V. Sakharov (the nature of mutations);
M. E. Lobashev (author of methodological manuals on genetics);
A. S. Serebrovsky;
K. A. Timiryazev;
N.P. Dubinin and many others.

This list can be continued for a long time, because at all times Russian minds have been great in all branches and scientific fields of knowledge.

Directions in science: medical genetics

The history of the development of medical genetics dates back much earlier than general science. After all, back in the 15th-18th centuries, the phenomena of inheritance of diseases such as:

polydactyly;
hemophilia;
progressive chorea;
epilepsy and others.

The negative role of incest in maintaining the health and normal development of offspring was established. Today this section of genetics is a very important area of medicine. After all, it is precisely this that allows you to control the manifestations and stop many genetic mutations at the stage of embryonic development of the fetus.

Human genetics

The history of development begins much later than general genetics. After all, looking inside the chromosomal apparatus of people became possible only with the use of the most modern technical devices and research methods.

Man has become an object of genetics primarily from a medical point of view. However, the basic mechanisms of inheritance and transmission of traits, their consolidation and manifestation in offspring for humans are no different from those in animals. Therefore, it is not necessary to use a person as the object of research.

In 2017, geneticists provided the world with incredible new genetic editing tools and discovered the vulnerabilities of bacteria and viruses. In addition, they made a number of fundamental discoveries that brought us closer to understanding the phenomenon of life. We have selected the 10 main discoveries and achievements in the field of genetics for 2017.

1. The genome of a living person was edited for the first time

The operation was carried out in California by employees of Sangamo Therapeutics. All other experiments, with the exception of one in China about which little is known, were carried out exclusively on samples of fetal tissue.

2. A stable semi-synthetic organism has been created

All life on Earth is based on four nucleotide letters: adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine (A, T, C, G). Using this alphabet, you can create any living organism, from bacteria to whales. Scientists have been trying to “break” this code for a long time, and this year they finally succeeded. The breakthrough was made by geneticists from the Scripps Research Institute. They supplemented the genetic alphabet with two new letters - X and Y, which they inserted into the DNA of E. coli.

They learned how to introduce artificial letters into DNA several years ago; the real breakthrough of 2017 was the stability of the artificial organism. Previously, the bases X and Y were lost during division, and the descendants of the modified bacterium quickly reverted to the “wild” state. Thanks to improved technology and changes made to the base Y, it was possible to maintain artificial “letters” in the bacterial genome for 60 generations. The practical application of the new technology remains a matter of the future; perhaps it can be used to impart new properties to microorganisms. In the meantime, what is more important for researchers is the fact that they managed to modify one of the fundamental mechanisms of life.

3. “Space gene” discovered

The world is experiencing a “space renaissance”: companies led by SpaceX are rushing into space one after another, and governments are planning to build colonies on Mars and the Moon. However, we should not forget that over millions of years our species and its ancestors evolved to live on the surface of the Earth. It is important to find out in advance how a long stay in space and on other planets will affect the human body in order to take the necessary protective measures. Fortunately, the researchers had such an opportunity - astronaut Scott Kelly, who spent about a year on the ISS, and his twin brother Mark, who remained on Earth, agreed to a full examination of their bodies.

In addition to the expected physiological changes caused by weightlessness, scientists were surprised to find differences in the brothers' genomes. Scott had a temporary lengthening of telomeres, the ends of chromosomes, as well as changes in the expression of more than 200,000 RNA molecules. The process of turning thousands of genes on and off has been transformed by being in space. Scientists called the collection of these changes the “cosmic genome.” It is not yet known how it affected Scott's health - experiments with the Kelly twins continue.

4. Genetic therapy has been proven effective

5. Antibiotic resistance explained at the molecular level

In 2017, concerned scientists announced that the end of the antibiotic era had come. A drug that has saved millions of lives for nearly a century is quickly becoming ineffective due to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This occurs due to the rapid reproduction of microorganisms and their ability to exchange genes. One bacterium that has learned to resist the effects of drugs will pass on this skill not only to its descendants, but also to any nearby representatives of its species.

However, while some are writing manifestos with calls to governments and the public, others are looking for vulnerabilities in superbugs. By understanding the molecular basis of drug resistance, we can effectively combat superbugs. Danish scientists were the first to prove that resistance genes and antibiotic genes are related to each other. Microorganisms of the genus Actinobacteria produce both antibiotics and substances that can neutralize them. Pathogenic bacteria are able to “steal” genes responsible for resistance from actinobacteria and spread them throughout the population. Although no one can stop horizontal gene transfer, the discovered mechanism will allow us to find new means of combating superbugs.

6. Longevity genes identified

Unlike various diseases that can be cured, aging is a truly existential problem. Researchers are determined to “abolish” it, but we do not yet know exactly the mechanisms of aging or the consequences that its disappearance will have on society. However, experts are optimistic. In 2017, a number of studies were conducted in the field of genetics of aging, which may be the key to solving the problem.

One of the directions was the search for mutations associated with longevity. One of them was discovered in the Amish community. The mutation was responsible for decreased levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1). Its speakers lived on average 14 years longer than other Amish (85 years versus 71 years). They were also less likely to suffer from age-related diseases, and their telomeres were longer. Other studies have shown that a mutation in the growth hormone receptor increases life expectancy in men, and that intelligence is genetically linked to slow aging. Also last year, Chinese scientists discovered a longevity gene in worms. Based on all this work, we can try to create a real medicine against old age. Perhaps one of the methods will be genetic correction of mitochondria - intracellular batteries that lose flexibility with age.

7. Genetic screening has become even more accurate

We are our genes. At least this idea is true when it comes to health, since many diseases are caused by a genetic predisposition to them. By deciphering your DNA, you can learn about the risks of certain diseases and take preventive measures. In 2017, genetic screening technologies improved and became increasingly accessible thanks to scientists and representatives of biotechnology companies. For example, it is now possible to predict in advance the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases and even the tendency to procrastination.

Genetic screening is important not only for adults, but also for unborn children and their parents, and there is progress in this area as well. Thus, last year’s study showed that a new method for diagnosing Down syndrome (and a number of other diseases) increased the accuracy of predictions to 95%. Now potential parents will be able to decide the fate of the fetus without fear of error. The startup Genomic Prediction goes even further: it promises to accurately predict the height, intelligence and health of an unborn child. He uses new technologies that have made it possible to predict not only diseases and developmental disorders caused by a single mutation, but also conditions formed through the interaction of many genes. In essence, this is eugenics, and a number of ethical questions arise regarding such a practice.

8. Genetic mechanisms of evolution have been clarified

The foundations of the theory of evolution were Charles Darwin, who discovered natural selection, and Gregor Mendel, who first described the mechanisms of heredity. Scientists of the 20th century were able to learn how evolution works at the molecular level. However, we are still far from fully understanding this process, and every year brings new discoveries. 2017 was no exception. One of the main works on the connection between genetics and evolution was the study of fish of the cichlid family, which demonstrated that not all characteristics of living organisms are explained by heredity. For example, behavior plays a huge role in the formation of the skull bones of fish.

In addition, scientists have made a number of remarkable fundamental discoveries about the genetic basis of evolution. They were able to understand how an asexual worm survived without sex for 18 million years, clarify the role of chance in evolution, and understand that viruses serve as the most important source of new genes.

9. Music was recorded on DNA for the first time

DNA is an information storage system that has worked successfully for billions of years. It is reliable and takes up very little space. Therefore, the idea of using it to record information seems obvious, since people are producing and collecting more and more data that needs to be stored somewhere. In 2016, Microsoft scientists translated 200 MB of information into a DNA molecule the size of a grain of salt. In 2017, research in this area continued.

Twist Bioscience has managed to record a music file onto DNA for the first time in history. Two compositions were chosen for this: “Tutu” by Miles Davis (live recording from the 1986 Montreux Jazz Festival) and the Deep Purple hit “Smoke on the Water”. According to the researchers, the recordings turned out to be perfect, and anyone will be able to listen to them, for example, in three hundred years - it will be enough to use a machine that reads DNA. Unlike modern media, recordings using nucleic acids are not subject to rapid destruction. In addition, this method of data storage is so compact that, according to calculations, all the information from the Internet, encoded in DNA, will fit into a large shoe box.

10. Genetic printer and biological teleporter created

Today, 3D printing is used to create houses, metal parts, and even organs. Geneticist John Craig Venter decided not to stop there and built a “genetic printer” that, instead of ink, is filled with bases and can print the DNA of living organisms. So far we are talking about the most primitive creatures, such as viruses, for example, the influenza virus, and bacteria, as well as individual sections of genomes and RNA.

Apart from experiments on plant hybridization in the 18th century, the first work on genetics in Russia began at the beginning of the 20th century. both at experimental agricultural stations and among university biologists, mainly those who were involved in experimental botany and zoology. After the revolution and civil war of 1917-1922. The rapid organizational development of science began. Human genetics at the stage of its formation was designated in our country in the spirit of the times - eugenics. The discussion of the possibilities of eugenics, which coincided with the start and rapid development of genetic research in Russia, was based on the traditions of Russian medicine and biology. This circumstance made the Russian eugenics movement unique: its activities, directed by N.K. Koltsov and Yu.A. Filipchenko, was built around the research program of F. Galton, the purpose of which was to uncover the facts of human heredity and the relative roles of heredity and environment in the development of various traits. N.K. Koltsov, Yu.A. Filipchenko and their followers discussed the problems of human genetics and medical genetics, including the population aspect of the problem. Thanks to these features of the Russian eugenics movement, a solid foundation for medical genetics was created in the 30s.

By the end of the 1930s, an extensive network of research institutes and experimental stations was created in the USSR (both in the USSR Academy of Sciences and in the Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences (VASKhNIL)), as well as university departments of genetics. An important step towards the establishment of genetics as an autonomous field of research was the solution of a number of educational tasks and education in the spring of 1928 by the Society for the Study of Racial Pathology and Geographical Distribution of Diseases. The new society, having a wide range of interests, was a sketch of the future Medical Genetics Institute. It was founded some time later by Solomon Grigorievich Levit (1894–1938). In 1930, the office was expanded to the Genetics Department at the Medical Biological Institute (MBI). Levit became director of the institute and refocused it on human genetics. Since the fall of 1932 (after an 8-month break), the Medical-Biological Institute again “focused on developing problems of biology, pathology and human psychology through the application of the latest achievements of genetics and related disciplines (cytology, mechanics of development, evolutionary theory). The main work of the institute began according to three channels: clinical-genetic, twin and cytological.

The recognized leaders of the direction were N. I. Vavilov, N. K. Koltsov, A. S. Serebrovsky, S. S. Chetverikov and others. Translations of the works of foreign geneticists, including T. Morgan, G. Möller, and a number of geneticists were published in the USSR participated in international scientific exchange programs. American geneticist G. Möller worked in the USSR (1934-1937), Soviet geneticists worked abroad. N.V. Timofeev-Resovsky - in Germany (since 1925), F.G. Dobzhansky - in the USA (since 1927).

Among the works of domestic scientists published during this period, Levit’s monograph “The Problem of Dominance in Humans” should be noted. It proved the fact of sharp phenotypic variability in most pathological mutant human genes. Levit came to the conclusion that pathological human genes are, for the most part, conditionally dominant and are characterized by low expression in heterozygotes. This conclusion of Levit contradicted Fisher's theory of evolution, according to which newly emerging mutant genes are recessive. However, in the light of the works of the school of S.S. Chetverikov and S.N. Davidenkov in the 20s and 30s. Levit's hypothesis should be recognized as more adequate. MBI employees translated into Russian Fisher’s pioneering book “The Genetic Theory of Natural Selection,” which included an exposition of his theory of the evolution of dominance, but removed the eugenic chapters from the translation. The author showed interest in this translation; The book's materials were widely discussed and seriously commented on.

MBI attached great importance to the examination of one- and two-zygotic twins. At the end of 1933, 600 pairs of twins were covered, in the spring of 1934 - 700 pairs, and in the spring of 1937 there were 1,700 pairs (in terms of the scope of work, the Leviticus Institute was in first place in the world). Twins have been studied by doctors of all specialties; children were provided with the necessary medical care; a kindergarten operated at the MBI (for 7 pairs of twins, 1933); at the suggestion of S.G. Levit, five pairs of twins studied at the conservatory (in order to find out effective teaching methods). By 1933, the use of the twin method gave results in elucidating the role of heredity and environment in the physiology and pathology of the child, in the variability of the electrocardiogram, some mental signs, etc. Another range of questions concerned the correlations of various functions and characteristics of the body; the third was devoted to elucidating the comparative effectiveness of various teaching methods and the appropriateness of one or another influence. N.S. Chetverikov and M.V. Ignatiev were involved in the development of variational-statistical methods for interpreting the data obtained. An attempt was made to accurately quantitatively account for the role of hereditary factors and environmental influences, both those that create intrafamily correlation and those that do not. All this had important theoretical and practical consequences.

Among the specific works of MBI there was a remarkable theoretical study by V.P. Efroimson 1932 Analyzing the balance between the accumulation of mutations and the intensity of selection, he calculated the rate of the mutation process in humans. Soon V.P. Efroimson was arrested on political charges, and in 1933 he was convicted by the OGPU under Art. 58-1 for three years ITL. Through his father, he sent the text from prison to be read at the seminar. The article was not published. Haldane then independently did similar work. S.G. Levit and the other speakers, each of whom made original contributions to the common cause, defined the subject of a new autonomous field of study. On May 15, 1934, the new science received a legitimate name: “medical genetics.”

In the 1930s A split has emerged in the ranks of geneticists and breeders due to the energetic activities of T.D. Lysenko. At the initiative of geneticists, a number of discussions were held (the largest in 1936 and 1939) aimed at combating Lysenko’s approach. At the turn of the 1930s-1940s. a number of prominent geneticists were arrested, many were shot or died in prison, including N.I. Vavilov, an outstanding Russian biologist and author of the modern theory of selection; developed the doctrine of the centers of origin of cultivated plants; formulated the law of homological series; developed the doctrine of species as a system.

In 1948, at the August session of VASKHNILT. D. Lysenko, with the support of I.V. Stalin, declared genetics a pseudoscience. Lysenko took advantage of the incompetence of the party leadership in science, “promising the party” the rapid creation of new highly productive varieties of grain (“branchy wheat”), etc. From that moment on, a period of persecution of genetics began, which was called “Lysenkoism” and continued until the removal of N.S. . Khrushchev from the post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee in 1964. Personally T.D. Lysenko and his supporters gained control over the institutes of the biology department of the USSR Academy of Sciences, VASKhNIL and university departments. New textbooks for schools and universities, written from the standpoint of Michurin biology, were published. Geneticists were forced to leave scientific activities or radically change their work profile. Some were able to continue their research on genetics as part of programs to study radiation and chemical hazards outside of the organizations controlled by T.D. Lysenko and his supporters.

After the discovery and deciphering of the structure of DNA, the physical basis of genes (1953), the restoration of genetics began in the mid-1960s. Minister of Education of the RSFSR V.N. Stoletov initiated a wide discussion between the Lysenkoites and geneticists, as a result of which many new works on genetics were published. In 1963, the university textbook M.E. was published. Lobashev's "Genetics", which subsequently went through several editions. Soon a new school textbook, “General Biology,” appeared, edited by Yu. I. Polyansky, which is used, along with others, to this day. In 1964, even before the ban on genetics was lifted, Efroimson’s first modern Russian textbook, “Introduction to Medical Genetics,” was published. In 1969, the Institute of Medical Genetics of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences was organized, the core of which was made up of employees of the department N.V. Timofeev-Resovsky and the laboratories of Prokofieva-Belgovskaya and Efroimson. A kind of successor to the Medical Genetics Institute arose. When organizing the new IMG, it was planned to create a special journal, but the plan was not implemented. The first journal since the 30s dedicated to the study of man ("Man") was created in 1990 at the Institute of Man of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Thus, domestic researchers have made a significant contribution to the development of such a branch of biology as genetics. This contribution could be even more significant if they were given the same favorable conditions for developing their own original ideas as foreign geneticists. Apparently, this is one of the reasons that modern Russian genetics is significantly behind Western science in its development.